Establishing Response to Intervention in Middle and High Schools: A Step-by-Step Guide Jim Wright www.interventioncentral.org

1
Establishing Response to Intervention in Middle
and High Schools A Step-by-Step GuideJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
2
Workshop Goals
3
School Instructional Time The Irreplaceable
Resource

• In the average school system, there are 330
  minutes in the instructional day, 1,650 minutes
  in the instructional week, and 56,700 minutes in
  the instructional year. Except in unusual
  circumstances, these are the only minutes we have
  to provide effective services for students. The
  number of years we have to apply these minutes is
  fixed. Therefore, each minute counts and schools
  cannot afford to support inefficient models of
  service delivery. p. 177

Source Batsche, G. M., Castillo, J. M., Dixon,
D. N., Forde, S. (2008). Best practices in
problem analysis. In A. Thomas J. Grimes
(Eds.), Best practices in school psychology V
(pp. 177-193).
4
RTI Assumption Struggling Students Are Typical
Until Proven Otherwise

• RTI logic assumes that
• A student who begins to struggle in general
  education is typical, and that
• It is general educations responsibility to find
  the instructional strategies that will unlock the
  students learning potential
• Only when the student shows through
  well-documented interventions that he or she has
  failed to respond to intervention does RTI
  begin to investigate the possibility that the
  student may have a learning disability or other
  special education condition.

5
Secondary Students Unique Challenges

• Struggling learners in middle and high school
  may
• Have significant deficits in basic academic
  skills
• Lack higher-level problem-solving strategies and
  concepts
• Present with issues of school motivation
• Show social/emotional concerns that interfere
  with academics
• Have difficulty with attendance
• Are often in a process of disengaging from
  learning even as adults in school expect that
  those students will move toward being
  self-managing learners

6
Why Do Students Drop Out of School? Student
Survey

• Classes were not perceived as interesting (47
  percent)
• Not motivated by teachers to work hard (69
  percent)
• Failing in school was a major factor in dropping
  out (35 percent)
• Had to get a job (32 percent)
• Became a parent (26 percent)
• Needed to care for a family member (22 percent)

Source Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J.,
Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic
Perspectives of high school dropouts. Seattle,
WA Gates Foundation. Retrieved on May 4, 2008,
from http//www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/downloads/e
d/TheSilentEpidemic3-06FINAL.pdf
7
Overlap Between Policy Pathways RTI Goals
Recommendations for Schools to Reduce Dropout
Rates

• A range of high school learning options matched
  to the needs of individual learners different
  schools for different students
• Strategies to engage parents
• Individualized graduation plans
• Early warning systems to identify students at
  risk of school failure
• A range of supplemental services/intensive
  assistance strategies for struggling students
• Adult advocates to work individually with at-risk
  students to overcome obstacles to school
  completion

Source Bridgeland, J. M., DiIulio, J. J.,
Morison, K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic
Perspectives of high school dropouts. Seattle,
WA Gates Foundation. Retrieved on May 4, 2008,
from http//www.gatesfoundation.org/nr/downloads/e
d/TheSilentEpidemic3-06FINAL.pdf
8
School Dropout as a Process, Not an Event

• It is increasingly accepted that dropout is
  best conceptualized as a long-term process, not
  an instantaneous event however, most
  interventions are administered at a middle or
  high school level after problems are severe.

Source Jimerson, S., Reschly, A.L., Hess, R.
(2008). Best practices in increasing the
likelihood of school completion. In A. Thomas
J. Grimes (Eds). Best Practices in School
Psychology - 5th Ed (pp. 1085-1097). Bethesda,
MD National Association of School
Psychologists.. p.1090
9
Five Core Components of RTI Service Delivery

1. Student services are arranged in a multi-tier
   model
2. Data are collected to assess student baseline
   levels and to make decisions about student
   progress
3. Interventions are evidence-based
4. The procedural integrity of interventions is
   measured
5. RTI is implemented and developed at the school-
   and district-level to be scalable and sustainable
   over time

Source Glover, T. A., DiPerna, J. C. (2007).
Service delivery for response to intervention
Core components and directions for future
research. School Psychology Review, 36, 526-540.
10
RTI Pyramid of Interventions
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Tier 1 Core Instruction

• Tier I core instruction
• Is universalavailable to all students.
• Can be delivered within classrooms or throughout
  the school.
• Is an ongoing process of developing strong
  classroom instructional practices to reach the
  largest number of struggling learners.
• All children have access to Tier 1
  instruction/interventions. Teachers have the
  capability to use those strategies without
  requiring outside assistance.
• Tier 1 instruction encompasses
• The schools core curriculum.
• Al published or teacher-made materials used to
  deliver that curriculum.
• Teacher use of whole-group teaching
  management strategies.
• Tier I instruction addresses this question Are
  strong classroom instructional strategies
  sufficient to help the student to achieve
  academic success?

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Tier I (Classroom) Intervention

• Tier 1 intervention
• Targets red flag students who are not
  successful with core instruction alone.
• Uses evidence-based strategies to address
  student academic or behavioral concerns.
• Must be feasible to implement given the resources
  available in the classroom.
• Tier I intervention addresses the question Does
  the student make adequate progress when the
  instructor uses specific academic or behavioral
  strategies matched to the presenting concern?

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The Key RTI Role of Classroom Teachers as Tier 1
Interventionists 6 Steps

1. The teacher defines the student academic or
   behavioral problem clearly.
2. The teacher decides on the best explanation for
   why the problem is occurring.
3. The teacher selects evidence-based
   interventions.
4. The teacher documents the students Tier 1
   intervention plan.
5. The teacher monitors the students response
   (progress) to the intervention plan.
6. The teacher knows what the next steps are when a
   student fails to make adequate progress with Tier
   1 interventions alone.

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Complementary RTI Models Standard Treatment
Problem-Solving Protocols

• The two most commonly used RTI approaches are
  (1) standard treatment and (2) problem-solving
  protocol. While these two approaches to RTI are
  sometimes described as being very different from
  each other, they actually have several common
  elements, and both fit within a problem-solving
  framework. In practice, many schools and
  districts combine or blend aspects of the two
  approaches to fit their needs.

Source Duffy, H. (August 2007). Meeting the
needs of significantly struggling learners in
high school. Washington, DC National High School
Center. Retrieved from http//www.betterhighschool
s.org/pubs/ p. 5
16
RTI Interventions Standard-Treatment vs.
Problem-Solving
There are two different vehicles that schools can
use to deliver RTI interventions Standard-Protoco
l (Standalone Intervention). Programs based on
scientifically valid instructional practices
(standard protocol) are created to address
frequent student referral concerns. These
services are provided outside of the classroom. A
middle school, for example, may set up a
structured math-tutoring program staffed by adult
volunteer tutors to provide assistance to
students with limited math skills. Students
referred for a Tier II math intervention would be
placed in this tutoring program. An advantage of
the standard-protocol approach is that it is
efficient and consistent large numbers of
students can be put into these group
interventions to receive a highly standardized
intervention. However, standard group
intervention protocols often cannot be
individualized easily to accommodate a specific
students unique needs. Problem-solving
(Classroom-Based Intervention). Individualized
research-based interventions match the profile of
a particular students strengths and limitations.
The classroom teacher often has a large role in
carrying out these interventions. A plus of the
problem-solving approach is that the intervention
can be customized to the students needs.
However, developing intervention plans for
individual students can be time-consuming.
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Tier 2 Supplemental (Group-Based)
Interventions(Standard Treatment Protocol)

• Tier 2 interventions are typically delivered in
  small-group format. About 15 of students in the
  typical school will require Tier 2/supplemental
  intervention support.
• Group size for Tier 2 interventions is limited
  to 4-7 students. Students placed in Tier 2
  interventions should have a shared profile of
  intervention need.
• The reading progress of students in Tier 2
  interventions are monitored at least 1-2 times
  per month.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
18
Tier 3 Intensive Individualized
Interventions(Problem-Solving Protocol)

• Tier 3 interventions are the most intensive
  offered in a school setting.
• Students qualify for Tier 3 interventions
  because
• they are found to have a large skill gap when
  compared to their class or grade peers and/or
• They did not respond to interventions provided
  previously at Tiers 1 2.
• Tier 3 interventions are provided daily for
  sessions of 30 minutes. The student-teacher ratio
  is flexible but should allow the student to
  receive intensive, individualized instruction.
• The reading progress of students in Tier 3
  interventions is monitored at least weekly.

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
19
Middle High School Lack of Consensus on an RTI
Model

• Because RTI has thus far been implemented
  primarily in early elementary grades, it is not
  clear precisely what RTI might look like at the
  high school level.

Source Duffy, H. (August 2007). Meeting the
needs of significantly struggling learners in
high school. Washington, DC National High School
Center. Retrieved from http//www.betterhighschool
s.org/pubs/ p. 3
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At the Federal Level A Hands-Off Approach to
RTI Implementation

• There are many RTI models and the regulations
  are written to accommodate the many different
  models that are currently in use. The Department
  does not mandate or endorse any particular model.
  Rather, the regulations provide States with the
  flexibility to adopt criteria that best meet
  local needs. Language that is more specific or
  prescriptive would not be appropriate. For
  example, while we recognize that rate of learning
  is often a key variable in assessing a childs
  response to intervention, it would not be
  appropriate for the regulations to set a standard
  for responsiveness or improvement in the rate of
  learning. p. 46653

Source U.S. Department of Education. (2006).
Assistance to States for the education of
children with disabilities and preschool grants
for children with disabilities final rule. 71
Fed. Reg. (August 14, 2006) 34 CFR Parts 300 and
301.
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The Purpose of RTI in Secondary Schools What
Students Should It Serve?
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Student Motivation The Need for Intervention

• A common response to students who struggle in
  sixth grade is to wait and hope they grow out of
  it or adapt, to attribute early struggles to the
  natural commotion of early adolescence and to
  temporary difficulties in adapting to new
  organizational structures of schooling, more
  challenging curricula and assessment, and less
  personalized attention. Our evidence clearly
  indicates that, at least in high-poverty urban
  schools, sixth graders who are missing 20 or
  more of the days, exhibiting poor behavior, or
  failing math or English do not recover. On the
  contrary, they drop out. This says that early
  intervention is not only productive but
  absolutely essential.

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
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What Are the Early Warning Flags of Student
Drop-Out?

• A sample of 13,000 students in Philadelphia were
  tracked for 8 years. These early warning
  indicators were found to predict student drop-out
  in the sixth-grade year
• Failure in English
• Failure in math
• Missing at least 20 of school days
• Receiving an unsatisfactory behavior rating
  from at least one teacher

Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
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What is the Predictive Power of These Early
Warning Flags?
Number of Early Warning Flags in Student Record Probability That Student Would Graduate
None 56
1 36
2 21
3 13
4 7
Source Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., MacIver, D. J.
(2007). Preventing student disengagement and
keeping students on the graduation path in urban
middle grades schools Early identification and
effective interventions. Educational
Psychologist,42, 223235. .
25
School Intervention Targets Focus on What
Schools Can Change

• Rather than considering a student problem to
  be the result of inalterable student
  characteristics, school intervention teams are
  compelled to focus on change that can be made to
  the intervention, curriculum or environment that
  would result in positive student outcome. The
  hypothesis and intervention should focus on those
  variables that are alterable within the school
  setting. These alterable variables include
  learning goals and objectives (what is to be
  learned), materials, time, student-to-teacher
  ratio, activities, and motivational strategies.
  p. 95

Source Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
Implementing response-to-intervention in
elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
York.
26
Focus on School Factors That We Can Control

• Some factors in students lives (such as family
  divorce, moving frequently, drug use, and poor
  teaching) lower the probability that these
  students will learn and/or get along with others.
  These are often referred to as risk factorsRisk
  factors do not assure student failure. Risk
  factors simply make the odds of failure greater.
  Aligning assessment and instruction allows
  teachersto introduce new factors into the
  students life that raise the probability of
  learning. These are often called protective
  factors since they protect against the risks
  associated with risk factorsThe use of
  protective factors to raise the probability of
  learning is often referred to as resilience.

Source Hosp, J. L. (2008). Best practices in
aligning academic assessment with instruction. In
A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in
school psychology V (pp.363-376). Bethesda, MD
National Association of School Psychologists.
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Target Student
Dual-Discrepancy RTI Model of Learning
Disability (Fuchs 2003)
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RTI Pyramid of Interventions
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Improving the Integrity of Academic Interventions
Through a Critical-Components Pre-Flight
CheckJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist
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Academic Interventions Critical Components
Checklist

• This checklist summarizes the essential
  components of academic interventions. When
  preparing a students Tier 1, 2, or 3 academic
  intervention plan, use this document as a
  pre-flight checklist to ensure that the
  academic intervention is of high quality, is
  sufficiently strong to address the identified
  student problem, is fully understood and
  supported by the teacher, and can be implemented
  with integrity. NOTE While the checklist refers
  to the teacher as the interventionist, it can
  also be used as a guide to ensure the quality of
  interventions implemented by non-instructional
  personnel, adult volunteers, parents, and peer
  (student) tutors.

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Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio Allocating Sufficient Contact Time Assuring Appropriate Student-Teacher Ratio
The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981). The cumulative time set aside for an intervention and the amount of direct teacher contact are two factors that help to determine that interventions strength (Yeaton Sechrest, 1981).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Time Allocated. The time set aside for the intervention is appropriate for the type and level of student problem (Burns Gibbons, 2008 Kratochwill, Clements Kalymon, 2007). When evaluating whether the amount of time allocated is adequate, consider Length of each intervention session. Frequency of sessions (e.g.., daily, 3 times per week) Duration of intervention period (e.g., 6 instructional weeks)
? Student-Teacher Ratio. The student receives sufficient contact from the teacher or other person delivering the intervention to make that intervention effective. NOTE Generally, supplemental intervention groups should be limited to 6-7 students (Burns Gibbons, 2008).
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem
Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided. Academic interventions are not selected at random. First, the student academic problem(s) is defined clearly and in detail. Then, the likely explanations for the academic problem(s) are identified to understand which intervention(s) are likely to helpand which should be avoided.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Problem Definition. The student academic problem(s) to be addressed in the intervention are defined in clear, specific, measureable terms (Bergan, 1995 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The full problem definition describes Conditions. Describe the environmental conditions or task demands in place when the academic problem is observed. Problem Description. Describe the actual observable academic behavior in which the student is engaged. Include rate, accuracy, or other quantitative information of student performance. Typical or Expected Level of Performance. Provide a typical or expected performance criterion for this skill or behavior. Typical or expected academic performance can be calculated using a variety of sources,
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Appropriate Target. Selected intervention(s) are appropriate for the identified student problem(s) (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008). TIP Use the Instructional Hierarchy (Haring et al., 1978) to select academic interventions according to the four stages of learning Acquisition. The student has begun to learn how to complete the target skill correctly but is not yet accurate in the skill. Interventions should improve accuracy. Fluency. The student is able to complete the target skill accurately but works slowly. Interventions should increase the students speed of responding (fluency) as well as to maintain accuracy. Generalization. The student may have acquired the target skill but does not typically use it in the full range of appropriate situations or settings. Or the student may confuse the target skill with similar skills. Interventions should get the student to use the skill in the widest possible range of settings and situations, or to accurately discriminate between the target skill and similar skills. Adaptation. The student is not yet able to modify or adapt an existing skill to fit novel task-demands or situations. Interventions should help the student to identify key concepts or elements from previously learned skills that can be adapted to the new demands or situations.
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Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.) Matching the Intervention to the Student Problem (Cont.)
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Cant Do/Wont Do Check. The teacher has determined whether the student problem is primarily a skill or knowledge deficit (cant do) or whether student motivation plays a main or supporting role in academic underperformance (wont do). If motivation appears to be a significant factor contributing to the problem, the intervention plan includes strategies to engage the student (e.g., high interest learning activities rewards/incentives increased student choice in academic assignments, etc.) (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005 Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements Incorporating Effective Instructional Elements
These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention. These effective building blocks of instruction are well-known and well-supported by the research. They should be considered when selecting or creating any academic intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Explicit Instruction. Student skills have been broken down into manageable and deliberately sequenced steps and the teacher provided overt strategies for students to learn and practice new skills (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008, p.1153).
? Appropriate Level of Challenge. The student experienced sufficient success in the academic task(s) to shape learning in the desired direction as well as to maintain student motivation (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Active Engagement. The intervention ensures that the student is engaged in active accurate responding (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).at a rate frequent enough to capture student attention and to optimize effective learning.
? Performance Feedback. The student receives prompt performance feedback about the work completed (Burns, VanDerHeyden Boice, 2008).
? Maintenance of Academic Standards. If the intervention includes any accommodations to better support the struggling learner (e.g., preferential seating, breaking a longer assignment into smaller chunks), those accommodations do not substantially lower the academic standards against which the student is to be evaluated and are not likely to reduce the students rate of learning (Skinner, Pappas Davis, 2005).
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Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support Verifying Teacher Understanding Providing Teacher Support
The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention. The teacher is an active agent in the intervention, with primary responsibility for putting it into practice in a busy classroom. It is important, then, that the teacher fully understands how to do the intervention, believes that he or she can do it, and knows whom to seek out if there are problems with the intervention.
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Teacher Responsibility. The teacher understands his or her responsibility to implement the academic intervention(s) with integrity.
? Teacher Acceptability. The teacher states that he or she finds the academic intervention feasible and acceptable for the identified student problem.
? Step-by-Step Intervention Script. The essential steps of the intervention are written as an intervention script--a series of clearly described stepsto ensure teacher understanding and make implementation easier (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Intervention Training. If the teacher requires training to carry out the intervention, that training has been arranged.
? Intervention Elements Negotiable vs. Non-Negotiable. The teacher knows all of the steps of the intervention. Additionally, the teacher knows which of the intervention steps are non-negotiable (they must be completed exactly as designed) and which are negotiable (the teacher has some latitude in how to carry out those steps) (Hawkins, Morrison, Musti-Rao Hawkins, 2008).
? Assistance With the Intervention. If the intervention cannot be implemented as designed for any reason (e.g., student absence, lack of materials, etc.), the teacher knows how to get assistance quickly to either fix the problem(s) to the current intervention or to change the intervention.
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Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data Documenting the Intervention Collecting Data
Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). Interventions only have meaning if they are done within a larger data-based context. For example, interventions that lack baseline data, goal(s) for improvement, and a progress-monitoring plan are fatally flawed (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
Critical Item? Intervention Element Notes
? Intervention Documentation. The teacher understands and can manage all documentation required for this intervention (e.g., maintaining a log of intervention sessions, etc.).
? Checkup Date. Before the intervention begins, a future checkup date is selected to review the intervention to determine if it is successful. Time elapsing between the start of the intervention and the checkup date should be short enough to allow a timely review of the intervention but long enough to give the school sufficient time to judge with confidence whether the intervention worked.
? Baseline. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has collected information about the students baseline level of performance in the identified area(s) of academic concern (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
? Goal. Before the intervention begins, the teacher has set a specific goal for predicted student improvement to use as a minimum standard for success (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004). The goal is the expected student outcome by the checkup date if the intervention is successful.
? Progress-Monitoring. During the intervention, the teacher collects progress-monitoring data of sufficient quality and at a sufficient frequency to determine at the checkup date whether that intervention is successful (Witt, VanDerHeyden Gilbertson, 2004).
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References

• Bergan, J. R. (1995). Evolution of a
  problem-solving model of consultation. Journal of
  Educational and Psychological Consultation, 6(2),
  111-123.
• Burns, M. K., Gibbons, K. A. (2008).
  Implementing response-to-intervention in
  elementary and secondary schools. Routledge New
  York.
• Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Boice, C. H.
  (2008). Best practices in intensive academic
  interventions. In A. Thomas J. Grimes (Eds.),
  Best practices in school psychology V
  (pp.1151-1162). Bethesda, MD National
  Association of School Psychologists.
• Haring, N.G., Lovitt, T.C., Eaton, M.D.,
  Hansen, C.L. (1978). The fourth R Research in
  the classroom. Columbus, OH Charles E. Merrill
  Publishing Co.
• Hawkins, R. O., Morrison, J. Q., Musti-Rao, S.,
  Hawkins, J. A. (2008). Treatment integrity for
  academic interventions in real- world settings.
  School Psychology Forum, 2(3), 1-15.
• Kratochwill, T. R., Clements, M. A., Kalymon,
  K. M. (2007). Response to intervention
  Conceptual and methodological issues in
  implementation. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K.,
  VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of
  response to intervention The science and
  practice of assessment and intervention. New
  York Springer.
• Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., Davis, K. A.
  (2005). Enhancing academic engagement Providing
  opportunities for responding and influencing
  students to choose to respond. Psychology in the
  Schools, 42, 389-403.
• Witt, J. C., VanDerHeyden, A. M., Gilbertson,
  D. (2004). Troubleshooting behavioral
  interventions. A systematic process for finding
  and eliminating problems. School Psychology
  Review, 33, 363-383. 
• Yeaton, W. M. Sechrest, L. (1981). Critical
  dimensions in the choice and maintenance of
  successful treatments Strength, integrity, and
  effectiveness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
  Psychology, 49, 156-167.

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Activity Academic Critical Components Checklist

• At your table
• Review the Academic Interventions Critical
  Components Checklist.
• Discuss how your school might use this checklist
  to improve the quality of academic interventions
  across the Tiers.

42
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.
org
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Teacher Tolerance as an Indicator of RTI
Intervention Capacity

• I call the range of students whom teachers
  come to view as adequately responsive i.e.,
  teachable as the tolerance those who are
  perceived to be outside the tolerance are those
  for whom teachers seek additional resources. The
  term tolerance is used to indicate that
  teachers form a permissible boundary on their
  measurement (judgments) in the same sense as a
  confidence interval. In this case, the teacher
  actively measures the distribution of
  responsiveness in her class by processing
  information from a series of teaching trials and
  perceives some range of students as within the
  tolerance. (Gerber, 2002)

Source Gerber, M. M. (2003). Teachers are still
the test Limitations of response to instruction
strategies for identifying children with learning
disabilities. Paper presented at the National
Research Center on Learning Disabilities
Responsiveness-to-Intervention Symposium, Kansas
City, MO.
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RTI Teacher Reluctance

• The willingness of teachers to implement
  interventions is essential in any school to the
  success of the RTI model. Yet general-education
  teachers may not always see themselves as
  interventionists and indeed may even resist the
  expectation that they will provide individualized
  interventions as a routine part of their
  classroom practice (Walker, 2004).
• It should be remembered, however, that teachers
  reluctance to accept elements of RTI may be based
  on very good reasons. Here are some common
  reasons that teachers might be reluctant to
  accept their role as RTI intervention first
  responders

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Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions

• Lack of Skills. Teachers lack the skills
  necessary to successfully implement academic or
  behavioral interventions in their content-area
  classrooms (Fisher, 2007 Kamil et al., 2008).
• Not My Job. Teachers define their job as
  providing content-area instruction. They do not
  believe that providing classwide or individual
  academic and behavioral interventions falls
  within their job description (Kamil et al., 2008).

46
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions(Cont.)

• No Time. Teachers do not believe that they have
  sufficient time available in classroom
  instruction to implement academic or behavioral
  interventions (Kamil et al., 2008 Walker,
  2004).
• No Payoff. Teachers lack confidence that there
  will be an adequate instructional pay-off if they
  put classwide or individual academic or
  behavioral interventions into place in their
  content-area classroom (Kamil et al., 2008).

47
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)

• Loss of Classroom Control. Teachers worry that if
  they depart from their standard instructional
  practices to adopt new classwide or individual
  academic or behavior intervention strategies,
  they may lose behavioral control of the classroom
  (Kamil et al., 2008).
• Undeserving Students. Teachers are unwilling to
  invest the required effort to provide academic or
  behavioral interventions for unmotivated students
  (Walker, 2004) because they would rather put that
  time into providing additional attention to
  well-behaved, motivated students who are more
  deserving.

48
Engaging the Reluctant Teacher 7 Reasons Why
Instructors May Resist Implementing Classroom RTI
Interventions (Cont.)

• The Magic of Special Education. Content-area
  teachers regard special education services as
  magic (Martens, 1993). According to this view,
  interventions provided to struggling students in
  the general-education classroom alone will be
  inadequate, and only special education services
  have the power to truly benefit those students.

49
Team Activity Engaging the Reluctant Teacher
50
Methods of Classroom Data CollectionJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
51

• Classroom Data Sources
• Existing records
• Global skills checklist
• Rating scales
• Behavioral frequency count
• Behavioral log
• Student work samples
• Work performance logs
• Timed tasks (e.g., CBM)

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Existing Records

• Description The teacher uses information already
  being collected in the classroom that is relevant
  to the identified student problem.
• Examples of existing records that can be used to
  track student problems include
• Grades
• Absences and incidents of tardiness
• Homework turned in

54
Global Skills Checklists

• Description The teacher selects a global skill.
  The teacher then breaks that global skill down
  into specific, observable subskills. Each
  subskill can be verified as done or not done.

55
Global Skills Checklists Example

• The teacher selects the global skill
  organizational skills.
• That global skill is defined as having the
  following components, each of which can be
  observed
• arriving to class on time
• bringing work materials to class
• following teacher directions in a timely manner
• knowing how to request teacher assistance when
  needed
• having an uncluttered desk with only essential
  work materials.

56
Behavioral Frequency Count

• Description The teacher observes a student
  behavior and keeps a cumulative tally of the
  number of times that the behavior is observed
  during a given period.
• Behaviors that are best measured using frequency
  counts have clearly observable beginning and end
  pointsand are of relatively short duration.
  Examples include
• Student call-outs.
• Requests for teacher help during independent
  seatwork.
• Raising ones hand to make a contribution to
  large-group discussion.

57
Behavioral Frequency Count How to Record

• Teachers can collect data on the frequency of
  student behaviors in several ways
• Keeping a mental tally of the frequency of target
  behaviors occurring during a class period.
• Recording behaviors on paper (e.g., simple tally
  marks) as they occur.
• Using a golf counter, stitch counter, or other
  mechanical counter device to keep an accurate
  tally of behaviors.

58
Behavioral Frequency Count How to Compute

• If student behaviors are being tallied during a
  class period, frequency-count data can be
  reported as X number of behaviors per class
  period.
• If frequency-count data is collected in different
  spans of time on different days, however, schools
  can use the following method to standardize
  frequency count data
• Record the total number of behaviors observed.
• Record the number of minutes in the observation
  period.
• Divide the total number of behaviors observed by
  total minutes in the observation period.
• Example 5 callouts observed during a 10 minute
  period 0.5 callouts per minute.

59
Behavior Log

• Description The teacher makes a log entry each
  time that a behavior is observed. An advantage of
  behavior logs is that they can provide
  information about the context within which a
  behavior occurs.(Disciplinary office referrals
  are a specialized example of a behavior log.)
• Behavior logs are useful for tracking
  low-incidence problem behaviors.

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Behavior Log Sample Form
61
Rating Scales

• Description A scale is developed that a rater
  can use to complete a global rating of a
  behavior. Often the rating scale is completed at
  the conclusion of a fixed observation period
  (e.g., after each class period).
• Daily / Direct Behavior Report Cards are one
  example of rating scales.

62
Jim Blalock
May 5
Mrs. Williams
Rm 108
Daily Behavior Report Card Daily Version
63
Student Work Samples

• Description Work samples are collected for
  information about the students basic academic
  skills, mastery of course content, etc.
• Recommendation When collecting work samples
• Record the date that the sample was collected
• If the work sample was produced in class, note
  the amount of time needed to complete the sample
  (students can calculate and record this
  information).
• If possible, collect 1-2 work samples from
  typical students as well to provide a standard of
  peer comparison.

64
Work Performance Logs

• Description Information about student academic
  performance is collected to provide insight into
  growth in student skills or use of skills in
  appropriate situations.Example A teacher
  implementing a vocabulary-building intervention
  keeps a cumulative log noting date and vocabulary
  words mastered.
• Example A student keeps a journal with dated
  entries logging books read or the amount of seat
  time that she spends on math homework.

65
Timed Tasks (e.g., Curriculum-Based Measurement)

• Description The teacher administers structured,
  timed tasks to assess student accuracy and
  fluency.
• Example The student completes a 2-minute CBM
  single-skill math computation probe.
• Example The student completes a 3-minute CBM
  writing probe that is scored for total words
  written.

66
Combining Classroom Monitoring Methods

• Often, methods of classroom data collection and
  progress-monitoring can be combined to track a
  single student problem.
• Example A teacher can use a rubric (checklist)
  to rate the quality of student work samples.
• Example A teacher may keep a running tally
  (behavioral frequency count) of student callouts.
  At the same time, the student may be
  self-monitoring his rate of callouts on a Daily
  Behavior Report Card (rating scale).

67
Activity Classroom Methods of Data Collection

• In your teams
• Review the potential sources of classroom data
  that can be used to monitor Tier 1 interventions.
• What questions do you have about any of these
  data sources?
• How can your school make full use of these data
  sources to ensure that every Tier 1 intervention
  is monitored?

• Classroom Data Sources
• Existing records
• Global skills checklist
• Rating scales
• Behavioral frequency count
• Behavioral log
• Student work samples
• Work performance logs
• Timed tasks (e.g., CBM)

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Defining Student Problem Behaviors A Key to
Identifying Effective Interventions Jim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
69
Defining Problem Student Behaviors

• Define the problem behavior in clear, observable,
  measurable terms (Batsche et al., 2008 Upah,
  2008). Write a clear description of the problem
  behavior. Avoid vague problem identification
  statements such as The student is disruptive.
• A well-written problem definition should include
  three parts
• Conditions. The condition(s) under which the
  problem is likely to occur
• Problem Description. A specific description of
  the problem behavior
• Contextual information. Information about the
  frequency, intensity, duration, or other
  dimension(s) of the behavior that provide a
  context for estimating the degree to which the
  behavior presents a problem in the setting(s) in
  which it occurs.

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Defining Problem Student Behaviors

1. Develop examples and non-examples of the problem
   behavior (Upah, 2008). Writing both examples and
   non-examples of the problem behavior helps to
   resolve uncertainty about when the students
   conduct should be classified as a problem
   behavior. Examples should include the most
   frequent or typical instances of the student
   problem behavior. Non-examples should include any
   behaviors that are acceptable conduct but might
   possibly be confused with the problem behavior.

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Defining Problem Student Behaviors

1. Write a behavior hypothesis statement (Batsche et
   al., 2008 Upah, 2008). The next step in
   problem-solving is to develop a hypothesis about
   why the student is engaging in an undesirable
   behavior or not engaging in a desired behavior.
   Teachers can gain information to develop a
   hypothesis through direct observation, student
   interview, review of student work products, and
   other sources. The behavior hypothesis statement
   is important because (a) it can be tested, and
   (b) it provides guidance on the type(s) of
   interventions that might benefit the student.

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Defining Problem Student Behaviors

1. Select a replacement behavior (Batsche et al.,
   2008). Behavioral interventions should be focused
   on increasing student skills and capacities, not
   simply on suppressing problem behaviors. By
   selecting a positive behavioral goal that is an
   appropriate replacement for the students
   original problem behavior, the teacher reframes
   the student concern in a manner that allows for
   more effective intervention planning.

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Defining Problem Student Behaviors

1. Write a prediction statement (Batsche et al.,
   2008 Upah, 2008). The prediction statement
   proposes a strategy (intervention) that is
   predicted to improve the problem behavior. The
   importance of the prediction statement is that it
   spells out specifically the expected outcome if
   the strategy is successful. The formula for
   writing a prediction statement is to state that
   if the proposed strategy (Specific Action) is
   adopted, then the rate of problem behavior is
   expected to decrease or increase in the desired
   direction.

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Defining Student Motivation/Behavior Problems
Activity

• At your table
• Review the 5-step process described in the
  workshop for identifying and analyzing student
  behavior problems.
• Discuss how your school can share this framework
  with teachers.

81
Motivation Intervention Case ExampleJim
Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org
82
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Problem
• Justin showed a pattern from the start of the
  school year of not complying with teacher
  requests in his English class. His teacher, Mr.
  Steubin, noted that when given a teacher
  directiveJustin would sometimes fail to comply.
  Justin would show no obvious signs of opposition
  but would sit passively or remain engaged in his
  current activity, as if ignoring the instructor.
  When no task demands were made on him, Justin
  was typically a quiet and somewhat distant
  student but otherwise appeared to fit into the
  class and show appropriate behavior.

83
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Evidence
• Student Interview. Mr. Steubin felt that he did
  not have a strong relationship with the student,
  so he asked the counselor to talk with Justin
  about why he might be non-compliant in English
  class. Justin told the counselor that he was
  bored in the class and just didnt like to write.
  When pressed by the counselor, Justin admitted
  that he could do the work in the class but chose
  not to.
• Direct Observation. Mr. Steubin noted that Justin
  was less likely to comply with writing
  assignments than other in-class tasks. The
  likelihood that Justin would be non-compliant
  tended to go up if Mr. Steubin pushed him to
  comply in the presence of Justins peers. The
  odds that Justin would comply also appeared to
  increase when Mr. Steubin stated his request and
  walked away, rather than continuing to nag
  Justin to comply.

84
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Evidence (Cont.)
• Work Products. Mr. Steubin knew from the
  assignments that he did receive from Justin that
  the student had adequate writing skills. However,
  Justins compositions tended to be short, and
  ideas were not always as fully developed as they
  could beas Justin was doing the minimum to get
  by.
• Input from Other Teachers. Mr. Steubin checked
  with other teachers who had Justin in their
  classes. The Spanish teacher had similar problems
  in getting Justin to comply but the science
  teacher generally found Justin to be a compliant
  and pleasant student. She noted that Justin
  seemed to really like hands-on activities and
  that, when potentially non-compliant, he
  responded well to gentle humor.

85
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Intervention
• Mr. Steubin realized that he tended to focus most
  of his attention on Justins non-compliance. So
  the students non compliance might be supported
  by teacher attention. OR the students compliant
  behaviors might be extinguished because Mr.
  Steubin did not pay attention to them.
• The teacher decided instead that Justin needed to
  have appropriate consequences for non-compliance,
  balanced with incentives to engage in learning
  tasks. Additionally, Mr. Steubin elected to give
  the student attention at times that were NOT
  linked to non-compliance.

86
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Intervention (Cont.)
• Appropriate Consequences for Non-Compliance. Mr.
  Steubin adopted a new strategy to deal with
  Justins episodes of non-compliance. Mr. Steubin
  got agreement from Justins parents that the
  student could get access to privileges at home
  each day only if he had a good report from the
  teacher about complying with classroom requests.
  Whenever the student failed to comply within a
  reasonable time (1 minute) to a teacher request,
  Mr. Steubin would approach Justins desk and
  quietly restate the request as a two-part
  choice statement. He kept his verbal
  interactions brief and neutral in tone. As part
  of the choice statement, the teacher told
  Justin that if he did not comply, his parents
  would be emailed a negative report. If Justin
  still did not comply, Mr. Steubin would follow
  through later that day in sending the report of
  non-compliance to the parents.

87
Teacher Command Sequence Two-Part Choice
Statement

• Make the request. Use simple, clear language
  that the student understands. If possible,
  phrase the request as a positive (do) statement,
  rather than a negative (dont) statement. (E.g.,
  Justin, please start your writing assignment
  now.) Wait a reasonable time for the student to
  comply (e.g., 1 minute)

88
Teacher Command Sequence Two-Part Choice
Statement

• If the student fails to comply Repeat the
  request as a 2-part choice. Give the student
  two clear choices with clear consequences. Order
  the choices so that the student hears negative
  consequence as the first choice and the teacher
  request as the second choice. (E.g., Justin, I
  can email your parents to say that you wont do
  the class assignment or you can start the
  assignment now and not have a negative report go
  home. Its your choice.) Give the student a
  reasonable time to comply (e.g., 1 minute).

89
Teacher Command Sequence Two-Part Choice
Statement

1. If the student fails to comply Impose the
   pre-selected negative consequence. As you impose
   the consequence, ignore student questions or
   complaints that appear intended to entangle you
   in a power struggle.

90
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Intervention (Cont.)
• Active Student Engagement. Mr. Steubin reasoned
  that he could probably better motivate the entire
  class by making sure that lessons were engaging.
  He made an extra effort to build lessons around
  topics of high interest to students, built in
  cooperative learning opportunities to engage
  students, and moved the lesson along at a brisk
  pace. The teacher also made real-world
  connections whenever he could between what was
  being taught in a lesson and ways that students
  could apply that knowledge or skill outside of
  school or in future situations.

91
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Intervention (Cont.)
• Teacher Attention (Non-Contingent). Mr. Steubin
  adopted the two-by-ten intervention (A. Mendler,
  2000) as a way to jumpstart a connection with
  Justin. The total time required for this strategy
  was 20 minutes across ten school days.

92
Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With
Students The Two-By-Ten Intervention (Mendler,
2000)

• Make a commitment to spend 2 minutes per day for
  10 consecutive days in building a relationship
  with the studentby talking about topics of
  interest to the student. Avoid discussing
  problems with the students behaviors or
  schoolwork during these times.

Source Mendler, A. N. (2000). Motivating
students who dont care. Bloomington, IN
National Educational Service.
93
Sample Ideas to Improve Relationships With
Students The Three-to-One Intervention (Sprick,
Borgmeier, Nolet, 2002)

• Give positive attention or praise to problem
  students at least three times more frequently
  than you reprimand them. Give the student the
  attention or praise during moments when that
  student is acting appropriately. Keep track of
  how frequently you give positive attention and
  reprimands to the student.

Source Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., Nolet, V.
(2002). Prevention and management of behavior
problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H.
M. Walker G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for
academic and behavior problems II Preventive and
remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD
National Association of School Psychologists.
94
Case Example Non-Compliance

• The Outcome
• The strategies adopted by Mr. Steubin did not
  improve Justins level of compliance right away.
  Once the teacher had gone through the full ten
  days of the two by ten intervention, however,
  Mr. Steubin noticed that Justin made more eye
  contact with him and even joked occasionally. And
  the students rate of compliance then noticeably
  improvedbut still had a way to go.
• Mr. Steubin kept in regular contact with Justins
  parents, who admitted about 8 days into the
  intervention that they were not as rigorous as
  they should be in preventing him from accessing
  privileges at home when he was non-compliant at
  school. When the teacher urged them to hold the
  line at home, they said that they would and did.
  Justins behavior improved as a result, to the
  point where his level of compliance was typical
  for the range of students in Mr. Steubins class.

95
Secondary-Level Academic Tier 1 Intervention
Case ExampleJim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.or
g
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Tier 1 Case Example Patricia Reading
Comprehension
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Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Problem
• A student, Patricia, struggled in her social
  studies class, particularly in understanding the
  course readings. Her teacher, Ms. Cardamone,
  decided that the problem was significant enough
  that the student required some individualized
  support.

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Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Evidence
• Student Interview. Ms. Cardamone met with
  Patricia to ask her questions about her
  difficulties with social studies content and
  assignments. Patricia said that when she reads
  the course text and other assigned readings, she
  doesnt have difficulty with the vocabulary but
  often realizes after reading half a page that she
  hasnt really understood what she has read.
  Sometimes she has to reread a page several times
  and that can be frustrating.

100
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Evidence (Cont.)
• Review of Records. Past teacher report card
  comments suggest that Patricia has had difficulty
  with reading comprehension tasks in earlier
  grades. She had received help in middle school in
  the reading lab, although there was no record of
  what specific interventions were tried in that
  setting.
• Input from Other Teachers. Ms. Cardamone checked
  with other teachers who have Patricia in their
  classes. All expressed concern about Patricias
  reading comprehension skills. The English
  teacher noted that Patricia appears to have
  difficulty pulling the main idea from a passage,
  which limits her ability to extract key
  information from texts and to review that
  information for tests.
•  

101
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Intervention
• Ms. Cardamone decided, based on the evidence
  collected, that Patricia would benefit from
  training in identifying the main idea from a
  passage, rather than trying to retain all the
  information presented in the text. She selected
  two simple interventions Question Generation and
  Text Lookback. She arranged to have Patricia meet
  with her during an open period to review these
  two strategies. During that meeting, Ms.
  Cardamone demonstrated how to use these
  strategies effectively with the social studies
  course text and other assigned readings.

102

• Students are taught to boost their comprehension
  of expository passages by (1) locating the main
  idea or key ideas in the passage and (2)
  generating questions based on that information.

QuestionGeneration
http//www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interve
ntions/rdngcompr/qgen.php
103

• Text lookback is a simple strategy that students
  can use to boost their recall of expository prose
  by identifying questions that require information
  from the text and then looking back in the text
  in a methodical manner to locate that
  information.

Text Lookback
http//www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/interve
ntions/rdngcompr/txtlkbk.php
104
Case Example Reading Comprehension

• Documentation and Goal-Setting
• Ms Cardamone filled out a Tier 1 intervention
  plan for the student. On the plan, she listed
  interventions to be used, a checkup date (4
  instructional weeks), and data to be used to
  assess student progress.
• Data Ms. Cardamone decided that she would rate
  the students grasp of text content in two ways
• Student self-rating (1-3 scale 1dont
  understand 3 understand well)
• Quiz grades.
• She collected baseline on both and set a goal for
  improvement.

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Case Example Reading Comprehension

• The Outcome
• When the intervention had been in place for 4
  weeks, Ms. Cardamone noted that Patricia appeared
  to have a somewhat better grasp of course content
  and expressed a greater grasp of material from
  the text.
• She shared her intervention ideas with other
  teachers working with Patricia. Because
  Patricias self-ratings of reading comprehension
  and quiz grades met the goals after 4 weeks, Ms.
  Cardamone decided to continue the intervention
  plan with the student without changes.