Learning theories, instructional design theories and instructional design models

1
Learning theories, instructional design theories
and instructional design models

• Kai Pata

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Role of metaphors in design

• Characteristic of the development of a new type
  of urban car by Honda were slogans and phrases
  that were a form of explication of the personal
  hunches of various people.
• If the automobile were an organism, how should it
  evolve ?
• The phrase described an ideal.
• As team members argued and discussed what this
  slogan might mean, they came up with an answer in
  the form of yet another slogan man-maximum,
  machine-minimum.
• This captured the teams belief that theideal
  car should somehow transcend the traditional
  human-machine relationship.

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Role of metaphors in design

• From considering how automobiles (taken as living
  beings) would evolve emerged theconcept of Tall
  Boy (a car that growshigher without becoming
  otherwise bigger)that provided a background for
  moderncity cars.

Linguist George Lakoff and philosopher Mark
Johnson Metaphors We Live By The essence of
metaphor is understanding and experiencing one
kind of thing in terms of another.
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Role of metaphors in design

• Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) provide examples of
  the importance of externalization of tacit
  knowledge for innovation in Japanese firms.
• Personal hunches must be convertible to explicit
  knowledge and shared with others to be fruitful.
• Tacit (or implicit) knowledge mental models,
  experiences, stories, rituals and skills residing
  in the individual and private mind.
• Explicit knowledge formal models, processes,
  rules and procedures which can be communicated
  externally

Nonaka I. Takeuchi H., The Knowledge-Creating
Company, Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Role of metaphors in design
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Role of metaphors in design
Implicit metaphors of learning
Discussions about what learning is
Instructional design theories and models
Learning theories
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Discussing metaphors and proverbs of learning

• Learning is..
• What metaphors have been used for describing
  learning theories?
• How are learning metaphors related with
  instructional designs?
• Which learning theories are behind your learning
  metaphors?

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Some metaphors and proverbs about learning

• Planting flowers -- A seed is planted in my mind
  which I nurture with water and sun in the faith
  that it will sprout and grow.
• Being a detective -- It's all about uncovering
  the facts, looking for clues and asking the right
  questions until the whole mystery makes sense.
• A quest -- I'm searching for that illusive
  something and every step I take brings me closer
  to what I need to know, but I never get there ...
  it's a continuous journey.

• Estonian proverbs
• Ela õppimise tarvis ja õpi elamise tarvis.
• Kes õpib, see ka teab.
• Töö õpetab tegijat.
• Töö õpetab iseennast.
• Harjutus teeb meistriks.
• Inimene õpib hällist kunni hauani.
• Tarkust ei saa kulbiga päha tõsta.

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Learning theories

• Learning theory is the set of principles about
  learning
• consisting of the descriptions what initiates
  learning
• how learning process proceeds,
• and what is the result of learning (Driscoll,
  1994).
• Learning theories describe the essence of
  learning and predict the results of learning.
• But
• Learning theories are general and give few
  concrete guidelines how to implement these in
  certain situations.

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Behavioural learning
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Black box metaphor
Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning
theory A science of behavior must eventually
deal with behavior in its relation to certain
manipulable variables.
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Response strenghteningmetaphor
1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening
Teacher gives punishment and rewards, student
reacts with teacher defined behaviour
Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning
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Principles of behaviourism
conditioning reflex Pavlov provided the basis
of behaviourism highlighting the importance of
stimulus for learning. Neutral Stimulus (NS) gt
No Response (NR) NS Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) gt Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) gt Conditioned Response (CR)
Pavlov dog
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Principles of behavioural learning
Skinner, 1950 1. Behaviour that is positively
reinforced will reoccur intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective 2.
Information should be presented in small amounts
so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar
stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing
secondary conditioning
Skinner box
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General educational implications of behaviorism
Emphasis on behavior students should be active
respondents people are most likely to learn
when they actually have a chance to behave.
Student learning must be evaluated only
measurable behaviour changes can confirm that
learning has taken place.
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Drill and practice

• Repetition of stimulus-response habits
  strengthens those habits.
• Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill
  through repetitive practice.
• Refers to small tasks such as the memorization
  of spelling or vocabulary words, or the
  practicing of arithmetic facts and may also be
  found in more complex learning tasks or physical
  education games and sports.
• Involves repetition of specific skills.
• To be meaningful to learners, the skills built
  through drill-and-practice should become the
  building blocks for more meaningful learning.
• Drills are usually repetitive and are used as a
  reinforcement tool.

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Advantages of drill programs

• personalized
• help learners master materials at their own pace
• mainly for the beginning learner
• for students who are experiencing learning
  problems
• interactive nature

• DRILL program ABC
• recognition of the type of skill being developed
• use of appropriate strategies to develop
  competencies
• use of games to increase motivation
• provide feedback to students

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Drill programs
New task
Show answer!
3 x Show answer gt new problem
Check answer!
Results solved/correct

• Chemistry equations

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Drill programs

• Math 1
• Math 2

Choose activity and numbers
Interactivity Competition Feedback
Timer
Check answer
correct/wrong answers
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Drill programs
Check answer
Language learning
Choose topic
Test
Feedback
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Drill programs
Music
Sounds -feedback from program
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Drill programs
Find correct!
Feedback
Game elements
Punishing system
Trials and error method
Phases drilling and testing knowledge
Biology
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Behavioural elements in computer games

• System of tokens in computergames serves as the
  rewarding element.
• Rewards and tokens are the source of extrincic
  motivation.
• When behaviour is conditioned with tokens the
  behaviour itself becomes pleasant and can turn
  into the source of intrincic motivation to play
  the game.

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Behavioural elements in computer games
Warrock
Gaining experience to proceed in levels Gaining
points to earn money to buy new weapons
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Behavioural elements in computer games
Decisions give resourse- or environment points
and you can make the environment better. When
your health points decrease you can see that the
environmental conditions get worse.
www.honoloko.com
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Player types

• Agressive can do anything to win
• Ambicious/calculating is always motivated by
  victory
• Kamikaze does all he can to sabotage the
  winning chances
• Cautious takes minimum risks
• Manin et al. 2006
• What other types could you identify related with
  tokens and rewards in games that are related with
  behavioural learning ideas?

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Cognitive learning
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Information processing metaphor
1960-1970 learning as information processing
(Mayer,1996).
Teacher is transmissing knowledge, students are
receivers of knowledge
Textbooks and other content management systems.
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Knowledge acquisition metaphor
Anna Sfard 1998

• According to the knowledge-acquisition metaphor
  learning is the construction of well-organised
  knowledge structures that provide students with
  the means of interacting with the important
  aspects of the problem situations.
• Acquiring scientific knowledge takes place
  through conceptual change where intuitive
  knowledge is replaced/modified with
  scientifically correct knowledge.
• Knowledge acquisition metaphoris based on the
  idea that our brainis a containerand the
  learning process is fillingthis container
  (Bereiter, 2002).

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Brain as the computer metaphor
Computer has information inputs and action
outputs similarly as we receive signals from the
environment with our sensory organs and react
with behavours that emerge in response to the
outside signals Information is recorded, decoded
and processed both inside the computer and the
brain, this processing provides the output
behaviours.
information
reaction
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Model of cognitive architecture
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Dual-coding theory

• Paivio (1986) "Human cognition is unique in that
  it has become specialized for dealing
  simultaneously with language and with nonverbal
  objects and events.

A dual coding theory of learning from visual and
verbal materials. (Mayer, 1993)
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Cognitive load theory

• Provides guidelines to assist in the presentation
  of information in such a way that helps learners
  to optimize their intellectual performance.
• Is based on the assumptions of
• an effectively unlimited longterm memory and
• a limited working memory(e.g., Baddeley, 1986),
• Aims at designinginstructions that donot
  overburden thelearners cognitivecapabilities.

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Applications of information processing metaphor

• http//mudelid.5dvision.ee/

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Constructivist learning
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Knowledge construction metaphor
1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction
(Mayer,1996).
guided inquiry discussions
Student is constructing knowledge on the basis of
earlier knowledge in real situations, teacher is
guiding the learning process
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Steven Weinberg free-floating metaphor
Constructivism has been illustrated by using the
free floating metaphor that emphasises that the
rules to construct individual knowledge as well
as the paths of learning are unpredictable in
advance. The free-floating ideahas recently
been used in elearningto describe the
knowledge-management this is thebeast that is
combiningthe e-learning practices with the
free-floating knowledge created and shared by
learning organisations during their activities
(Barron, 2000)
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Discovery metaphor

• Discovery learningis based on the "Aha!method.
• Dewey wrote "There is an intimate and necessary
  relation between the processes of actual
  experience and education".
• Bruner believed that students learn best by
  discovery and that the learner is a problem
  solver who interacts with the environment testing
  hypotheses and developing generalizations.

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Experiental learning metaphor

• The foundation of learning is experience.
• Learning is the transformation of our experiences
  into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values
• Reflectionhelps to transformthe experiences.
• (Kolb)

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Inquiry metaphor
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Co-lab
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Anchoring metaphor

• Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for
  technology-based learning that has been developed
  by the Cognition Technology Group at Vanderbilt
  (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford.
• Learning and teaching activities should be
  designed around an 'anchor' whichshould be some
  sort of case-studyor problem situation.

KNOWLEDGE
Adventures of Jasper Woodbury http//peabody.vande
rbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/preview/AdvJW.htm
l
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Rock Cycle game
Software http//edu.technion.ac.il/Faculty/Faculty
.asp?FMYaelk
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Inquiry learning applications
http//bio.edu.ee/
BGUILE http//www.letus.org/bguile/
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Young Scientist
http//bio.edu.ee/noor/
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Lake Illuka
http//www.emlab.uow.edu.au/
Home water-usage simulaator
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Nardooriver
Investigating highly polluted river
Algae simulator
PDA for taking water-proofs
http//learningteam.org/htmls/nardoo.html
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Constructivist learning systems
Joint construction

• Concept-mapping elements
• Gliffy http//gliffy.com/
• Brainstorming tools

Belvedere http//lilt.ics.hawaii.edu/belvedere/
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Social-constructivist learning
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Roots for knowledge building metaphor by
Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994)

• Popper (1972) has emphasized that in addition to
  physical and material reality (World 1) and the
  reality that concerns mental states (World 2),
  there is a third realm (World 3), which includes
  conceptual entities such as theories and ideas.
• World 3 is especially important for human beings
  because they do not operate only in the physical
  and mental realms, but also understand and
  develop objects belonging to the third realm.
  World 3 is dependent on World 2 and World 1, but
  it is nevertheless rather autonomous.

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Knowledge building metaphor Scardamalia and
Bereiter (1994)

• Knowledge building refers to collective work for
  the advancement and elaboration of conceptual
  artifacts (product plans, business strategies,
  marketing plans, theories, ideas, and models)
  (the world of cultural knowledge).
• An important aspect of Bereiters theory is to
  make a conceptual distinction between learning,
  which operates in the realm of mental states
  (Poppers World 2), and knowledge building, which
  operates in the realm of theories and ideas
  (Poppers World 3).

Knowledge Forum (KF, see www.learn.motion.com)
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CSILE environment
Environment for knowledge building in communities
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Negotiations metaphor
Since 1990 The social-constructive learning has
been illustrated with the negotiations metaphor
(Mayer,1996). According to this
metaphorknowledge is always builtin the
dialogue where the actorscreate shared knowledge
of eachothersknowledge, that enablesshared
activity and supportsindividual knowledge
creation.
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Community role in learning

• The development of content alone does not lead to
  more effective learning and there is the need to
  structure and foster learning environments to
  enable communities to develop.
• Learning happens through mediating artefacts
  within a framework of activity within a wider
  socio-cultural context of the rules of the
  community.

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Participation metaphor

• Social-constructivist learning has been
  illustrated with the participation metaphor
  (Sfard, 1998) that suggests that all learners are
  part of communities of practice that have certain
  common knowledge and skills (Lave ja Wenger).
• Learning in the communities of practice is
  directed from the older members of thecommunity
  towards the newmembers who as a result
  oflearning move from theperipherial areas of
  the systemtowards the core of thecommunity and
  become themselvesthe experts who can transfer
  thecommunity practice.

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Communities of Practice
Raub, S. (2002). Communities of Practice A New
Challenge for Human Resources Management,
Research and Practice in Human Resource
Management, 10(2), 16-35.
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Knowledge creation in organisations
Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995)
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Collaborative learning environments
Fle3 DEMO http//fle3.uiah.fi/demo/
demo/demo
Synergy DEMO http//bscl.fit.fraunhofer.de/pub2/bs
cl.cgi/0/4
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WISE
Collaborative inquiry learning environment
http//wise.berkeley.edu
kai pata2 tihane
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Knowledge is embedded in practices

• Engeström, 1999
• Human beings do not live in a vacuum but are
  embedded in their sociocultural context, and that
  their behavior cannot be understood independently
  of that context.
• Human activity is mediated through the conceptual
  and material cultural artifacts people use.
• The participants focus on reconceptualizing their
  own activity system in relation to their shared
  objects of activity, both the objects and the
  existing scripts are reconceptualized the
  activity system is transformed and new motives
  and objects for the activity system are created.
• Knowledge is always embedded in practices, in
  contrast to the mentalistic tradition of
  knowledge in the head.

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Processes within an activity
Cole Engeström, 1993
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Cultural Historical Activity Theory

• In its ideal form Engeströms model of expansive
  learning in work teams is based on a learning
  cycle with seven stages
• individual participants question and criticize
  certain existing practices.
• they analyze the situation that is, they analyze
  the historical causes and empirical inner
  relations of the activity system in question.
• the participants engage in modeling a new
  solution to the problematic situation.
• they examine the new model by experimenting to
  determine whether it works and what
  potentialities and limitations it has.
• they implement the new model to explore practical
  action and applications.
• they reflect on and evaluate the process.
• they engage in consolidating the new practice in
  its new form.

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Rhizomic metaphor

• Rhizomic metaphor describes the endless
  connections in the structure of knowledge,
  culture, language, and thinking that is common to
  social-constructivist learning.
• Differently from the roots of thetree that serve
  as the controllingspot for the whole tree,
  therhizome has manyconnection-points, it has
  nostarting- or endingpoint, it is
  anintermediate being, always inbetween two
  spots, describingthe alliance, the connection
  withthe idea ..more..and more..and more

Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari "Rhizome"
(1976), A Thousand Plateaus (1980)
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Principles of social-constructivist learning
environment

• Learners build their own mental structures by
  interacting with the real environment.
• Learners have access to resources and expertise
  and they can sequence the learning activity
  according to their own needs.
• This enables to develop more engaging and
  student-centered, active and authentic learning
  environments.
• Toolkits and other support systems guide and
  inform users through a process of activities.
• (Duffy and Jonassen)

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Principles of social-constructivist learning
environments

• Learning takes place in communication acts where
  the information is transmissed, processed,
  recombinated, contrasted in problem-solving
  situations.
• The cognition is always distributed, this leads
  to the construction of shared knowledge between
  individuals and the surrounded information-rich
  environment of resources and relationships.

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Ubiquitous learning metaphor
Mobile learning has ubiquitous ("anytime,
anywhere) nature.
Ubiquity is the ability to be present everywhere
or at several places at once. The term is derived
from Latin ubique which means everywhere.
Wikipedia
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Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
(Patten et al., 2006)
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Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
(Patten et al., 2006)
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Possibilities for ubiquitous learning
(Patten et al., 2006)
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Innovative learning

• Innovative learning and knowledge advancement are
  characterized as cyclical and iterative
  processes, which have several implications.
• Knowledge creation often requires sustained
  periods of time and is not correctly described by
  traditional narratives of heroic individuals
  making ingenious discoveries through sudden
  moments of insight.
• Moreover, knowledge creation is not linear
  (Engeström, 1987) but a process of ambiguity and
  creative chaos (Nonaka Takeuchi, 1995),
  involving the sense of progress.
• Knowledge creation does not start from scratch
  but is a process of transforming and developing
  sometimes in a radical way existing ideas and
  practices.

Hakkarainen et al., 2004
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What learning theories are behind your metaphors?

• Learning is..
• Rethinking, which learning theories are behind
  your metaphors?

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Task 1

• Which metaphors are behind these learning
  environments? Explain and illustrate with
  arguments!
• FLE3 http//fle3.uiah.fi/demo/
• Honoloko www.honoloko.com
• Young Scientist http//bio.edu.ee/noor
• Miksike LEFO http//lefo.net/
• Belvedere http//lilt.ics.hawaii.edu/belvedere/
• Discussion and comparison of arguments.

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Social-constructivist learning
contextualised
Cases and problems shared knoweledge
construction and expertise inquiry and
decision-making
Complex skills and intergrated knowledge
Complexity of thinking operations
Situativity
Cognitive learning
e-content, drill program or tutorial assesment
test
decontextualised
Basic skills knowledge
Behavioural learning
transmissing
conditioning
constructing
Teaching paradigm
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Instructional-design theories

• In his book Instructional-design theories and
  models A new paradigm of Instructional Theory
  (1999), C. Reigeluth conceptualizes the meaning
  of Instructional-Design Theory as the
  design-oriented approach towards teaching, which
  focuses on the means of attaining given goals for
  learning or development by offering explicit
  guidance on how to better help people to learn
  and develop.

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Instructional-design theories

• Snelbecker (1999) has assumed that it is
  important, both conceptually and practically,
  that the instructional-design theory was the
  primary interest of the study, rather than
  instructional methods were designed as by-product
  of the theory construction obtained from other
  scientists.
• This increases the likelihood that the important
  aspects of the instruction have been focused in
  formulating ideas, rather than on trying to force
  instructional processes and outcomes to fit a
  theory from some other area.

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Instructional-design theories

• While the definition of Instructional-Design
  Theory by Reigeluth (1999) is decision-oriented
  by nature, the conclusion-oriented aspects of
  the design research have been emphasised by
  several authors (Cobb, 2001 Edelson, 2002
  Sweller, 2004).
• Cobb (2001) focuses on the role of design as a
  strategy for testing theories in educational
  research.
• The strength of theories developed through design
  research originates from their explanatory power
  and their grounding in specific experiences
  (Cobb, 2001).
• Discovering that some instructional designs are
  superior to others can also provide insights into
  human cognitive architecture that may otherwise
  be difficult to achieve (Sweller, 2004).

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Edelson (2000) design research paradigm

• The design research paradigm is a strategy for
  developing and refining three types of theories
• domain theories that characterise the
  challenges and opportunities in specific teaching
  and learning context, describe the models how
  pupils learn in this context and the desired
  outcomes of learning
• design frameworks that provide knowledge of the
  properties of successful design solution and
• design methodologies which provide guidelines
  for successful design procedure.

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Aims of the instructional design research

• Cronbach and Suppes (1969) distinguish between
  two types of inquiry
• conclusion-oriented that describes the reality
  and
• decision-oriented that aims to change the
  reality.
• First type guides the theorists (e.g.
  researchers) who identify and give meaning to the
  cause-and-effect mechanisms or flows of events in
  the learning domain.
• The latter type is common to the practitioners
  (e.g. teachers) who need to develop applications
  that consider these theories and principles in
  various teaching situations.

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Aims of the instructional design research

• The research related to the decision- and
  conclusion-oriented instructional designs follow
  the opposite sequences

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Conclusion-oriented instructional design

• Cobb (2001) has introduced the four-step strategy
  for testing theories that
• starts from the development of the theory,
• continues with the derivation of the design
  principles from the theory and
• translating these into concrete designs and
• ending with the evaluation of the designs in
  relation to the theory.

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Decision-oriented instructional design research

• The process of instructional-design aims to
  develop better practises for increasing certain
  outcomes of learning.
• By Reigeluth (1999), any instructional-design
  theory identifies methods of instruction up to
  the detailed components, providing educators with
  the means how to effectively support and
  facilitate learning in certain situations.

82
Decision-oriented instructional design research

• The development of instructional-design framework
  is a continuous process of testing various
  methods, explaining the results of testing in the
  light of theory and, if necessary, complementing
  the methods on the basis of findings and
  theoretical interpretations (Reigeluth, 1999).
• Following the main ideas brought out by Reigeluth
  (1999), any instructional-design framework has to
  provide guidance on the following points

83
Decision-oriented instructional design research

• Identifying the circumstances under which
  learning has to take place.
• Identifying the desired outcomes of learning.
• Identifying the sound theoretical background for
  instructional-designs under certain
  circumstances.
• Identifying the best theory driven
  instructional-design methods for scaffolding the
  learning process.
• Identifying appropriate learning-tools for
  applying certain instructional-design methods and
  scaffolding.
• Identifying the group of learners to whom the
  instructional design methods are applicable
  effectively.

84
Iterative nature of instructional design research

• Edelson (2002) has suggested that from the aspect
  of theory construction, the practical process of
  applying a theory to construct a design naturally
  exposes inconsistencies in theory and is more
  effective than analytical research.
• The important characteristic of design research
  is that it is not sequential but iterative
  movement between the states of problem analysis
  and design solution during which the boundary
  between decision-oriented design and the
  conclusion-oriented research will be eliminated.

85
Instructional design models

• Instructional design models may be defined as the
  visualized representations of an instructional
  design process, showing the main elements or
  phases, and their relationships.
• The selection of instructional design model
  depends of the selection of the learning theory
• Jonassen points out that the difference
• behavioral or cognitive instructional designs
  have a predetermined outcome and intervene in the
  learning process to map a pre-determined concept
  of reality into the learner's mind
• constructivist learning outcomes are not always
  predictable, instruction should foster, not
  control, learning

86
Instructional design models

• Behavioural and linear design models are
• ADDIE is a general purpose model, most useful for
  creating instructional products, but also
  applicable for program design.
• Dick Carey model exemplifies the systematic
  approach to curriculum and program design.
• Kemp's model is most useful for large-scale
  programs involving groups of people and multiple
  resources.
• Social constructivist design models are spiral
• R2D2 involves the participants into spiral design

87
Instructional design models

• Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the
  practice of analyzing a task and breaking it down
  into manageable chunks, establishing objectives,
  and measuring performance based on those
  objectives.
• Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a
  more open-ended learning experience where the
  methods and results of learning are not easily
  measured and may not be the same for each
  learner.

88
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s
and 1960s focus on language laboratories,
teaching machines, programmed instruction,
multimedia presentations and the use of the
computer in instruction.
89
ADDIE
The principal example of Instructional Systems
Design is represented by the ADDIE model.
90
Dick and Carey model

• The Dick and Carey model prescribes a methodology
  for designing instruction by breaking it down
  into smaller components.
• Instruction is specifically targeted on the
  skills and knowledge to be taught and supplies
  the appropriate conditions for the learning of
  these outcomes.

91
Kemp Instructional Design Plan
92
Kemp Instructional Design Plan

• The oval shape of the model (as depicted in the
  "original" diagram) gives the designer the sense
  that the design and development process is a
  continuous cycle
• Identify instructional problems, and specify
  goals for designing an instructional program.
• Examine learner characteristics that should
  receieve attention during planning.
• Identify subject content, and analyze task
  components related to stated goals and purposes.
• State instructional objectives for the learner.
• Sequence content within each instructional unit
  for logical learning
• Design instructional strategies so that each
  learner can master the objectives.
• Plan the instructional message and delivery.
• Develop evaluation instruments to assess
  objectives.
• Select resources to support instruction and
  learning activities.

93
Kemp Instructional Design Plan

• Revision encircles all nine elements of model.
• The two outer ovals illustrate the feedback
  geature, which allows the designer to make
  changes in the content or treatment of elements
  at any time during the development cycle.
• The idea is to improve any weak parts of the
  program as they are discovered to better insure
  learners will be able to accomplish the
  instructional objectives at a satisfactory level.

94
The Recursive, Reflective Design and Development
(R2D2) model

• was introduced in a journal article by Willis in
  1995.
• R2D2 has four overarching principles (1)
  recursion, (2) reflection, (3) non-linearity, and
  (4) participatory design.
• makes the design process a spiral
• emphasizes the need for the designer to
  thoughtfully seek and consider feedback and ideas
  from many sources
• suggests a set of focal points that need not be
  approached in any particular predetermined order
• users should be involved extensively in all
  phases of the design and development process

95
Objective-Rational Instructional Design (ID)
Model

• The process is sequential and linear
• Planning is top down and "systematic"
• Objectives guide development
• Experts, who have special knowledge, are
  considered critical and central to ID work
• Careful sequencing and the teaching of subskills
  are important
• The goal is delivery of preselected knowledge
• Summative evaluation is critical
• Objective data are critical

Willis (1995)
96
Implications of constructivism for instructional
design

• D. Jonassen lists the following implications of
  constructivism for instructional design
• "...purposeful knowledge construction may be
  facilitated by learning environments which
• Provide multiple representations of reality -
  avoid oversimplification of instruction by by
  representing the natural complexity of the world
• Present authentic tasks - contextualize
• Provide real-world, case-based learning
  environments, rather than pre-determined
  instructional sequences
• Foster reflective practice
• Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge
  construction
• Support collaborative construction of knowledge
  through social negotiation, not competition among
  learners for recognition

97
Linking learning theories with instructional
design

• Olivers framework
• Individual Where the individual is the focus of
  learning.
• Social learning is explained through
  interaction with others (such as a tutor or
  fellow students), through discourse and
  collaboration and the wider social context within
  which the learning takes place.
• Reflection Where conscious reflection on
  experience is the basis by which experience is
  transformed into learning.
• Non-reflection Where learning is explained with
  reference to processes such as conditioning,
  preconscious learning, skills learning and
  memorisation (Jarvis, Holford, Griffin, 1998).
• Information Where an external body of
  information such as text, artefacts and bodies of
  knowledge form the basis of experience and the
  raw material for learning.
• Experience Where learning arises through direct
  experience, activity and practical application.

98
Linking learning theories with instructional
design
Olivers framework The representation emphasises
the relationships between the ends of the
spectrum in the form of an octahedron
Individual Social. Reflection
Non-reflection. Information Experience. The
representation is useful in terms of helping to
identify learning pathways
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Learning activities in instructional design
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Task 2

• Form a list of activities what were present in
  one of your investigated learing system
• Evaluate activities with the instructional design
  model in the 3 dimensions
• Individual Social
• Reflection Non-reflection
• Information Experience
• Decide what learning theories might be supported
  by this learning environment
• Compare the results of your previous arguments
  from Task 1.