Codes. The need for regulation and codes of behavior emerge

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Ethical Issues in Research
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McGill University Study

• During the period 1957-60 Ewan Cameron at McGill
  U. in Montreal administered psychedelic drugs to
  52 unsuspecting patients in order to carry out
  brainwashing experiments for the CIA. These
  experiments were disclosed publicly for the first
  time in 1977 in the New York Times. But it was
  not until 1988 that the survivors received
  settlement.

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Tuskegee Study

• "Beginning in the 1930s, 399 men signed up with
  the U.S. Public Health Service for free medical
  care. The service was conducting a study on the
  effects of syphilis on the human body. The men
  were never told they had syphilis. They were told
  they had "bad blood" and were denied access to
  treatment, even for years after penicillin came
  into use in 1947. By the time the study was
  exposed in 1972, 28 men had died of syphilis, 100
  others were dead of related complications, at
  least 40 wives had been infected and 19 children
  had contracted the disease at birth."

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Codes

• The need for regulation and codes of behavior
  emerged from revelations of the research
  atrocities committed by the Nazis.
• The Nuremberg Code of 1947 for biomedical
  research was the first to focus on the importance
  of informed consent.
• The Helsinki Declaration of 1964 provided
  guidance in such areas as the use of animals for
  research purposes.
• Perhaps the earliest code in the social sciences
  was the 1953 code relating to research, teaching,
  and professional practices developed from over
  1000 case studies submitted by members of the
  Amer. Psych. Association (APA) through a research
  study launched in 1948.

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• The Amer. Sociol. Assn. (ASA) adopted a formal
  code of ethics in 1969.
• American Psychological Association (1982)
• The Ethical Principles in the Conduct of Human
  Research with Human Participants
• The National Research Act (1974)
• Passed by Congress for the purpose of protecting
  human subjects participating in experiments.

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However, the responsibility for ethical research
ultimately lies with the individual researcher.
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Letter of Introduction

• Perhaps Signed By
• Boss
• CEO
• Professor
• Letter Should Specify
• Precise rationale for research
• How exactly it will involve participants
• How results will help participants

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Other Ethical Factors

• Never Any Pressuring of Participants
• Safety of Participants Essential
• Every researcher must receive precise,
  appropriate credit.
• One Should Use Ones Research in Some Way
• One Should Try to Make Results Known to
  Participants
• One Should be Conscious of Possible Bad Uses of
  Research

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• Failure to do a Literature Review May be Seen as
  Unethical

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• One Should Not Cheat
• One Should Not Plagiarize

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Research Proposal

• Consideration of ethical issues is an important
  part of many research proposals.

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Elements of Informed Consent

• Tell participants who is conducting study
• Why was subject singled out for
  participation? e.g. random sample e.g.
  recently given birth to 1st child etc.
• What is the time commitment? e.g. 45 minutes to
  complete the survey

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• Any benefits to be expected? Realistically,
  there are often few direct benefits.
• Any potential risks, and how have these been
  managed? Some people may experience negative
  emotions when discussing parental alcoholism.
  If you would like to discuss these with someone,
  please feel free to call the study director at
  the number below.

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Informed Consent

• Explain the Study and Offer to Answer
  Questions It is possible that telling all might
  compromise the integrity of the research.
  However, at the end debriefing is essential.
• Participation is always voluntary.
• Provide Participants with Copy of Informed
  Consent Form (if relevant).

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Informed Consent

• Payment Participant must know of any
  compensation
• Confidentiality (Anonymity, on the other hand,
  means that no one, including the researcher,
  will know the subjects identity)
• Debriefing

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INFORMED CONSENT

• Special Populations and CoercionDifficult for
  Some to Give True Voluntary Informed
  Consent They might lack necessary
  competency --children --mentally retarded

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INFORMED CONSENT

• Others May be Indirectly Coerced Students P
  rison Inmates Employees Military
  Personnel The Homeless Welfare Recipients

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INFORMED CONSENT

• Factors Such As Higher grades Early
  Parole Promotions Fear from
  refusing Expectations of other benefitsMay
  Play a Part

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Sometimes Consent is not Possible

• Fake an assault in the street to gauge reaction
  of bystanders -- who will intervene, who will do
  nothing.
• Element of surprise is essential
• Problem
• witnessing such an attack may be very disturbing
  to some.
• Those who do not intervene may be upset and
  suffer feelings of low worth.
• Those who do intervene may be injured.
• Debriefing is mandatory.

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Institutional Review Board (IRB)

• Sample Questions for Ethics ReviewInvestigator
  Who is the primary investigator, and who is
  supervising the study?

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Research Participants

• What are general characteristics of the research
  participants (e.g. age, sex etc.)?
• Any special characteristics of research
  participants (e.g. children, alcoholics, mentally
  retarded etc.)?
• Any other institutions/individuals cooperating or
  cosponsoring the study?
• What is general state of health (mental and
  physical) of the research participants?
• How will subjects be selected for, or excluded
  from, participation in this study?

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Procedure

• What will the subjects be asked to do, or what
  behaviors will be observed by the researchers?
• Will deception be used? If yes, why is it
  necessary?
• What is nature of the deception, and when will
  the debriefing take place?

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Material

• If electrical or mechanical equipment will be
  used, how has it been checked for safety?
• What standardized tests, if any, will be used?
  What info. will be provided to the subjects
  about their scores on these tests?

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Confidentiality

• What procedure will you use to ensure the
  confidentiality of the data?

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Anonymity

• Sometimes its impossible to have anonymity
• face to face interviews
• direct observation of behavior
• Important that you tell participants that their
  participation will not be anonymous.
• However, confidentiality may be safeguarded.

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Risks

• Any immediate risks to the subjects, including
  possibly causing them embarrassment,
  inconvenience, or discomfort?
• Are there any long-range risks to the subjects?
• If there are risks, what is the necessity for
  them, and how will subjects be compensated for
  facing such risks?

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Psychological Harm

• Interviewing of women whove been raped.
• Obviously consent must be obtained.
• Theyre free to withdraw at any time.
• Perhaps have psychological counseling available
  in case of distress.

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Bias-Free Writing

• No implication that it is normal or
  right To belong to a specific ethnic
  group Have a particular sexual
  preference Engage in a particular life-style

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Language is Particularly Important

• As far as possible use gender-neutral
  words e.g. PARENTING rather than MOTHERING
• Careful about assuming that certain professions
  are gender-related e.g. The physician . . .
  he The scientist . . . he

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Avoid Sexual Stereotyping

• e.g. A bright and beautiful female professor

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Careful with too many gender-biased pronouns

• e.g. A consultant may not always be able to see
  HIS clients.
• Other possibilities
• use the plural form Consultants . . . their
  clients
• Delete the adjective . . . to see clients
• Vary female and male adjectives, i.e. sometimes
  write her clients, sometimes his clients.

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Avoid language that reinforces stereotypes

• e.g. African-American students, NOT
  SURPRISINGLY, won the athletic events.
• The Irish contingent, as we might expect,
  drank very heavily at the party.

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Dont make unsupported assumptions about
various age groups.e.g. that the elderly are
less intellectually able.