Chapter Two:

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Chapter Two

• Theories of Development

PowerPoints prepared by Cathie Robertson,
Grossmont College
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Five Questions Central to Theories

• Do early experiences of breast-feeding or bonding
  or abuse linger into adulthood, even if they seem
  to be forgotten?
• How important are specific school experiences in
  human intelligence?
• Can a person develop moral values without being
  taught them?

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Five Questions Central to Theories, cont.

• Does culture elicit behavior, e.g., is violent
  crime more common in one place than another for
  example, in China or Canada?
• If your parents or grandparents schizophrenia, or
  alcoholism, will you develop them suffer from
  depression,?
• Of all questionsWhy or Why not? When and How?,
  So What?

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What Theories Do

• Developmental theorysystematic statement of
  principles and generalizations that provides a
  coherent framework for studying development

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What Theories Do, cont.

• Theories
• form basis for hypotheses that can be tested by
  research studies
• formulating right question is more difficult that
  finding right answers
• generate discoveries
• offer insight and guidance by providing coherent
  view

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What Theories Do, cont.

• Different Types
• grand theoriescomprehensive, traditional
  theories
• originated in psychology
• minitheoriestheories that focus on specific area
  of development
• originated more in sociology through study of
  social groups and family structures
• emergent theoriesnew, comprehensive groupings of
  minitheories
• multidisciplinary approach includes historic
  events and genetic discoveries

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Grand Theories

• Grand Theoriespowerful framework for
  interpreting and understanding change and
  development that applies to all individuals in
  all contexts, across all contents

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Psychoanalytic Theory

• Psychoanalytic theory interprets human
  development in terms of motives and drives

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Freuds Ideas

• Sigmund Freud
• Three stages of development in first six years
• oral, anal, phallic
• in early childhood, latency and then adolescence,
  genital
• each stage includes potential conflicts
• how a person experiences and resolves conflicts
  determines personality and patterns of behavior

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Eriksons Ideas

• Erik Erikson, a follower of Freud, proposed 8
  developmental stages, each characterized by a
  developmental crisis
• trust vs. mistrust
• autonomy vs. shame
• initiative vs. guilt
• industry vs. inferiority
• identity vs. role diffusion
• intimacy vs. isolation
• generativity vs. stagnation
• integrity vs. despair

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Behaviorism

• Behaviorism is built on laws of behavior and
  processes by which behavior is learned
• focus ways we learn specific behaviors that can
  be described, analyzed, and predicted with
  scientific accuracy

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Laws of Behavior

• Conditioningany process in which behavior is
  learned
• Classical conditioningIvan Pavlov
• process by which a neutral stimulus become
  associated with a meaningful stimulus
• stimulus and response (respondent conditioning)
• Operant conditioningB. F. Skinner
• process by which a response is gradually learned
  via reinforcement or punishment
• also called instrumental conditioning

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Social Learning

• Extension of learning theory that includes
  modeling which involves people observing behavior
  and patterning their own after it
• Modeling
• process in which people observe, then copy
  behavior
• Alfred Banduramost likely to occur if model is
  admired or observer is inexperienced
• self-efficacy motivates people to change
  themselves and their contexts

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Cognitive Theory

• Focuses on the structure and development of
  thought processes, which shape perceptions,
  attitudes, and actions.
• Jean Piagets 4 Stages
• sensorimotor
• pre-operational
• concrete operational
• formal operational

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Cognitive Theory, cont.

• Cognitive equilibriumstate of mental balance
• Cognitive adaptationassimilation, accommodation
  of ideas

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Emergent Theories

• Emergent theories arise from several accumulated
  minitheories and may be the new systematic and
  comprehensive theories of the future

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Sociocultural Theory

• Seeks to explain growth of individual knowledge,
  development, and competencies in terms of
  guidance, support, and structure supplied by the
  society
• human development is the result of dynamic
  interaction of the developing persons and their
  surrounding culture

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Guided Participation

• Guided participationtutor engages learner in
  joint activities, providing instruction and
  direct involvement in learning
• Apprenticeship in thinkingmentor provides
  instruction and support needed by novice

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The Zone of Proximal Development

• Zone of proximal developmentrange of skills
  learner can perform with assistance but not
  independently
• learner is drawn into learning by teacher
• Cultural variations Basic principles are
  universal, but skills, challenges, and
  opportunities vary from culture to culture,
  depending on the values and structures of the
  cultures society

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Epigenetic Theory

• Emphasizes the interaction between genes and the
  environmentthe newest developmental theory
• stresses that we have powerful instincts and
  abilities that arise from our biological
  heritage. Timing and pace of certain
  developmental changes are genetically guided
• performismeverything is set in advance by genes
  and then is gradually manifested in the course of
  maturation

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With, On, and Around the Genes

• Genetic refers to the entire genome that makes up
  the particular genes that cause each person to be
  unique
• each human has a genetic foundation that is
  unique
• epigenetic theory acknowledges the powerful
  instincts and abilities that arise from our
  biological heritage

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With, On, and Around the Genes, cont.

• Epi with, around, before, after, on, or near
  surrounding factors
• epigeneticsurrounding factors that affect
  expression of genetic instructions
• some surrounding factors may be stress factors
  others may be facilitating factors
• Genetic-environmental Interactions
• genes never function alone

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Genetic Adaptation

• Adaptation of the Genes
• selective adaptation means that genes for the
  traits that are most useful will become more
  frequent, thus making survival of species more
  likely

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What Theories Can Contribute

• Psychoanalytic theory has made us aware of
  importance of early childhood experiences
• Behaviorism has shown effect of immediate
  environment on learning
• Cognitive theory helps us understand how
  intellectual process and thinking affect actions

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What Theories Can Contribute, cont.

• Sociocultural theory has reminded us that
  development is embedded in a rich and
  multifaceted context
• Epigenetic theory emphasizes interactions between
  inherited forces and immediate contexts

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What Theories Can Contribute, cont.

• Eclectic perspective
• approach taken by most developmentalists in which
  they apply aspects of each of the various
  theories rather than staying with just one

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The Nature-Nurture Controversy

• Is it heredity or environment that shapes us?
• How much is a result of any given
  characteristics, behavior or pattern of
  development is a result of genes and how much is
  a result of experiences
• Policy and practice nature/nurture theories are
  implicit in many public policies

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality

• AD/HD and homosexualityHow and to what extent
  are nature and nurture involved in each case?
• Evidence from AD/HD research that it can come
  from either

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.

• Earlier assumptions about homosexuality more
  nurture than nature. As hypotheses tested,
  nurture was revealed as less crucial
• sexual orientation may be a matter of nature
• sexual expression may be a matter of cultural
  attitude (nurture) but not sexual orientation
• evidence supporting nature as main factor (e.g.,
  affect of genetic linkage, prenatal hormones)

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Theoretical Perspectives on Hyperactivity and
Homosexuality, cont.

• Ideology often adds to complexity and
  polarization of opinions on many subjects when
  nature and nurture are considered
• Important to separate assumptions from facts
• done via research and testing of hypotheses