Levels of Processing: Craik and Lockhart

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Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart

• Deeper processing (characteristics of the
  stimulus and how we process it) longer lasting
  memory codes
• Encoding levels
• Shallow structural? color, graphemic
• Intermediate phonemic ? sound (e.g., rhyme)
• Deep semantic ? meaning

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Enriching Encoding Improving Memory

• Elaboration
• For example thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery
• Easier for concrete objects Dual-coding theory
• Example Memory pegs

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One is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour
is a doorEtc.
AlligatorMonkey Ladder Eggs
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One is a bun.Alligator
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One is a bunTwo is a shoeThree is a treeFour
is a doorFive is a hiveSix is a stickSeven is
heavenEight is a gateNine is a lineTen is a hen
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Storage Maintaining Information in Memory

• Computer analogy
• Information-processing theories
• Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
• Characteristics
• Duration (primo)
• Capacity (?)
• Format (?)
• Type of forgetting (?)

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Sensory Memory

• Brief preservation - original sensory form
• George Sperling (1960)
• Classic experiment on visual sensory store
• Auditory/Visual approximately ¼ second

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Forgettingdecay!
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Short Term Memory (STM)

• Limited duration about 20 seconds without
  rehearsal
• Limited capacity magical number 7 plus or
  minus 2 without chunking
• Format primarily phonemic
• Forgetting primarily decay

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Short-Term Memory as Working Memory

• Not limited to phonemic encoding
• Not limited to decay
• Baddeley (1986) 3 components of working memory

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• Figure 7.9, Weiten

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Long-Term Memory

• Long-Term Memory
• Unlimited Capacity
• Permanent storage view
• Flashbulb memories
• Debate are STM and LTM really different?
• Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
• Decay vs. Interference based forgetting

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Retrieval Getting Information Out of Memory

• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
• Retrieval cues
• Recalling an event
• Context cues
• Reconstructing memories
• Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring

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Forgetting When Memory Lapses

• Ebbinghauss Forgetting Curve
• Retention the proportion of material retained
• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning

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• Figure 7.13, Weiten

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Permastore (Bahrick)
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So what causes forgetting?

• Interference!
• How to avoid it?
• Organize Order material in the appropriate
  sequence.
• Isolate (and eliminate) potentially interfering
  information
• Spaced practice
• Dont cram!