ISM 6121

1
ISM 6121

• End-Users
• Myth, Magic and Metaphors in
• Information Systems Development

2
Prior SAD Discussions

• SDLC methodologies
• RAD
• CASE tools
• Modeling DFDs
• Justification of IT investments
• Design
• Systems
• Internals
• Structured top-down approach

3
Perspective

• What perspective have we been focusing on?
• Is there another perspective?
• What about the social system that system
  development is a part of?

4
End-Users and RAD

• McConnel Chapter 10

5
Standish Group Results

• 1 Reason for Project Success
• User Involvement
• Top 3 Reasons for Failure (late, over-budget,
  less functionality)
• Lack of User Support
• Incomplete Requirement Specs
• Changing Requirements Specs

6
Hmmm, A Bit Arrogant?

• Customer Risks
• They dont understand what they want
• They wont commit to written requirements
• They come up with new requirements
• Slow communication
• They either wont participate in reviews or are
  just to dumb too!
• They are technically unsophisticated (dumb)!
• Customers dont understand the SDLC (dumb)!
• New Customers are an unknown (but lets assume
  they are dumb)!
• Now Lets work them!

7
Lets Turn It Around

• Analyst Risks
• We dont understand what the user does
• We want to freeze requirements no matter what!
• We cant communicate with them
• They actually understand business!
• We cant effectively do a walk-through in reviews
• We have a technology fetish!
• We dont use the SDLC properly
• Many business processes are an unknown
• Now Lets ask them to design a system!

8
SymbolismMyths, Magic and Metaphors!

• Or
• What I Didnt Learn in School

9
Why Myth, Magic Metaphor

• System Development Projects Continue to FAIL!
• Is SAD an Engineering Process
• Is SAD a Social Process
• If both which is better understood?
• If both which is more important to understand?

10
System Development

• Social Interplay of Multiple Actors
• Users, IS Staff, IS Management, Management
• Interpretation of their and others actions
• Through the medium of Language

11
Myths

• User Involvement is Beneficial (Encouraged)
• Manipulation
• Conflict
• Resistance is Dysfunctional (Inevitable)
• Unworkable System
• Systems should be Integrated (benefit
  dysfunctional units)
• PeopleSoft! (Enough Said)
• System Developer makes Best System Decisions (set
  policy)
• Dumb Users
• Politics Shouldnt Concern the Analyst
• The Key to Success is (fill in the name of your
  favorite SDLC here)

12
Information Metaphors

• Information is structured data (meaning)
• Information is Power (IS creates and reallocates
  power)
• Information is Intelligence
• Information is Perfectible

13
Technology/Man Metaphors

• Technology as Tool Man as Craftsman
• Master(man)/Slave(technology) Relationship
• Technology as Governor Man as Machine
• Master(technology)/Slave(man) Relationship
• Battle
• Its a War between Users and Developers
• Note to Self (Read CIGNA quote)

14
Magic (more later)

• System Developer as High Priest
• Those dumb users again
• Expert Systems as Human Experts
• Systems having Social Qualities in General

15
Trilogy

• How can our understanding of Expectation Theory
  help reduce negative consequences of Myth,
  Metaphor and Magic?

16
Metaphor of IS Archetypes

• IT is a Magical Dragon
• System Developers as Wizards
• Dragon on a pile of Gold
• Revered IT Culture
• The Caged Dragon
• Not to be trusted
• Pet Dragons
• Sorcerers apprentice
• Team Dragons
• Integrated culture
• Dead Dragons

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Dragons on a Pile of Gold

• Wizard is Fearless
• Only the Wizard can control the dragon
• Peasants can only defer to the wizard
• Or become apprentices
• Too dangerous to approach the dragon themselves

• Implications
• Innovations receive little resistance
• Complacent faith on old magic in the face of
  rapid change
• Little support for emergent business
  opportunities

18
Caged Dragons

• Wizards are not to be Trusted
• Control IS Dept.
• IS Dept. as Cost Center

• Implications
• Better integration of business strategy and IT
• Assuming Sr. exec know how to do this
• IT skills might deteriorate
• Difficult to attract Wizards with proper skill
  sets
• IT has little change of influencing strategic
  planning

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Pet Dragons

• Wizards are AWOL
• Apprentices are only nominally in control
• A little knowledge is dangerous
• Illiterate end-user
• Literate end-user
• Illiterate who thinks they are literate end-user

• Implications
• End-user empowerment
• Different results for the same data?
• Beware the semi-educated
• Difficult to have a unified organizational
  strategic approach

20
Team Dragons

• Wizards, Dragons Peasants
• Equal value placed on each others skill
• Makers of Magic
• Seekers of Magic Solutions

• Implications
• Teams dont necessarily function well just by
  being formed
• Compromises become Negotiation
• no more win-win
• Teamwork as ritual
• hidden agendas

21
Dead Dragons

• Wizard is Banished!
• Peasants resist automation
• IT may introduce Risk and possible Harm

• Implications
• Strong Concern for People
• Intense scrutiny of IT projects
• May detect flaws early on (when less costly)
• Retard innovation

22
The Magic Bullet Theory of IS
23
System Failures (Again)

• Change Management Explanation
• Or lack of it
• Belief in Magic
• Necessary for successful system implementation

24
Magic Bullet Theory

• IT Changes people and organizations by empowering
  them to do things they couldnt do before and by
  preventing them from working in old, unproductive
  ways. I am an agent of change because I
  initiate, design, or build a powerful technology.
  When people use my systems, desirable
  organizational changes result.

25
Magic

• IT Specialists (Analysts) Line Managers
• Believe Change (of the User) happens by itself
• The gun fires itself
• IT Specialists blame Management for failure
• poor ideas, not enough support
• Management blame IT Specialists for failure
• Limited ability of IT
• Specialists and Management can also blame
• The USER

26
Users

• Magic Bullet Theory
• Willing targets just waiting for change
• invariably succumb to the powerful impact of
  steel-jacketed projectiles
• Reality
• Users know how to dodge bullets
• Users have their own purposes
• Users can fight back

27
User Dodges

• Criticize IT itself
• I would have used WebCT for ISM 6121 if it
  didnt suck!
• Offer constructive suggestions
• Never ending functionality / requirements requests

28
Important Quotes

• Information technology is a package of ideas
  about how people should work differently.
• IT contains change ideas packaged in vehicles
  that have only some of the conditions necessary
  for change
• well built IT makes it easier for users to
  perform some improved work practice and makes it
  harder for users to continue ineffective methods.
  But IT does not and cannot ensure that users
  will use it as intended.

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Conditions Necessary for Change

• Users must
• Understand reasons for change
• Accept reasons for change
• Understand how to use the IT
• Understand how to use IT to reach desired goal
• These conditions are not contained within IT
  package

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Making Change Happen

• Facilitator Role
• People not IT make change happen
• People need to use IT in line with organizational
  goals
• Bring about all elements for successful IT
• good IT
• supportive organization
• knowledgeable users
• Empower people about IT

31
Making Change Happen

• Advocate Role
• People make change happen, but
• People must know objective of change
• People must know how to use tools to achieve it
• Use whatever tactics are necessary
• Let others take credit for their success
• Promoters of IT effectiveness in reaching
  corporate goals

32
Who are the change Agents?

• IS Specialists
• Managers
• Users?