Nuclear Disarmament: Challenges, Opportunities and Next Steps

1
Critical Issues Forum 2009
Nuclear Disarmament Challenges, Opportunities
and Next Steps (Benchmark 1)
Students-participants Andrey Kulikovskikh,
Nastya Petryakova Teacher-consultant Larisa
Zlokazova School 125 in Snezhinsk, Russia
2
Nuclear Disarmament Challenges, Opportunities
and Next Steps (Benchmark 1)
Objective 3 an understanding of the
reasons/motivations behind efforts of various
countries to acquire nuclear weapons
Objective 1 an understanding of nuclear weapons
in the world today
Objective 2 an understanding of the processes
involved in the production of nuclear weapons
in countries around the world
3
CIF 2009 Nuclear Disarmament Challenges,
Opportunities and Next Steps Benchmark 1
Names
Places
History
Beginning of the Cold War
Objective 1 an understanding of nuclear weapons
in the world today
Definitions
Nuclear Weapons testing
Cold War and Arms Race
4
History and development of nuclear weapons
back
5
Names
Twice Nobel Prize laureate in Physics (1903) and
Chemistry (1911), one of the first scientists who
studied radioactivity, the first woman-professor
of the University in Paris, the author of
techniques for isolation of radioactive
isotopes, discovered two new elements polonium
and radium.
A Nobel Prize laureate in physics who on 8th
November 1895 produced and detected X-rays or
Roentgen-rays.
Whilhelm Roentgen (3/27/1845 2/10/1923)
Marie Curie (7/11/1867 4/7/1934)
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Curie, 17
Jan. 2009
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Conrad_RC3B
6ntgen, 17 Jan.2009
A Nobel Prize laureate in Physics for his work on
induced radioactivity and contributions in
developing of nuclear reactor, nuclear and
particle physics, quantum physics and statistical
mechanics.
Was born in Austria-Hungary, later worked in
Germany, then moved to USA. In 1942 he produced
the first controlled chain reaction. One of the
authors and creators of the Manhattan Project.
next
back
Enrico Fermi (9/29/1901 11/28/1954)
Leo Szilard (2/11/1898 30/5/1964)
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermi, 17
Jan. 2009
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeC3B3_SzilC3A1rd
, 17 Jan. 2009
6
Names
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Chadwick, 19
Jan. 2009
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
, 19 Jan. 2009
With the help of Charles Ellis James Chadwick
worked on the ionization of phosphorus and also
on the photo- chemical reaction of carbon
monoxide and magnesium. He spent most of the
war years in Ruhleben until Geiger's laboratory
interceded for his release. On February 17, 1932
James Chadwick demonstrated the existence of
the neutron.
January 29, 1939 Robert Oppenheimer heard about
the discovery of fission, within a few minutes
he realized that excess neutrons was to be
emitted, and that it could be possible to build
a bomb.
Robert Oppenheimer (4/22/1904-2/18/1967)
James Chadwick (10/20/1891-7/24/1974)
Physicist, worked for many years studying neutron
reactions, in 1938 became a director of nuclear
physics, the leader of the project to develop and
test the first Soviet atomic (1949) and
thermonuclear (1953) bombs and building of the
first industrial nuclear plant (1954).
Founder of the atomic age, Nobel Prize laureate
in Chemistry, the founder of radiochemistry.
Otto Han (3/8/1879-7/28/1968)
next
back
Igor Kurchatov (12/12/1903 2/7/1960)
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Hahn, 12
Feb.2009
7
Places
Hiroshima On 6th August 1945 at the executive
order of the USA President Harry S. Truman
American superfortress B-29 dropped atomic bomb
on Hiroshima. About 140,000 were killed. The city
turned into a burnt desert.
Alamogordo, New Mexico The first nuclear test of
a plutonium bomb called TRINITY was conducted on
16th July in the USA in New Mexico state not far
from Alamogordo, the place is now called White
Sands Missile Range.
The Trinity explosion, 0.016 seconds after
detonation. The fireball is about 200 meters (600
ft) wide.
Hiroshima, in the aftermath of the bombing
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test
), 26 Jan.2009
Map of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan where the
two atomic weapons were employed
http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hi
roshima_and_Nagasaki, 2 Feb.2009
Yalta Conference Yalta is a resort town on the
Black Sea coast in USSR (now Ukraine).
Nagasaki On 9th August 1945 another atomic bomb
was dropped by American bomber on the city of
Nagasaki. About 80,000 civilians were killed. By
the end of 1945 thousands more died because of
injures and illnesses caused by exposure
radiation released by the bombs.
On 4th-11th February 1945 the Conference of
Allies of World War II - the USSR, the UK and
the USA was held to discuss the fate of
post-war Europe, formation of the UN, and other
political aspects of post-war world.
back
Nagasaki before and after bombing
http//library.thinkquest.org/10826/yalta.htm,
20 Jan.2009
8
The Beginning of the Cold War
back
Created by Andrey Kulikovskokh, school 125 in
Snezhinsk, Russia)
9
Nuclear Weapons testing
(Created by Andrey Kulikovskikh, school 125 in
Snezhinsk, Russia)
Since 16 July 1945 there have been 2,044 tests
worldwide
back
Of 2,044 nuclear weapons tests worldwide, 711
were in the atmosphere or underwater 215 by the
USA, 207 by the USSR, 21 by the UK, 45 by
France and 23 by China.
10
Cold War and Arms Race
(Created by Andrey Kulikovskikh, school 125 in
Snezhinsk, Russia)
The average pace of nuclear weapons testing is
remarkable Since 16 July 1945 there have been
2,044 tests worldwide, the equivalent of one
test occurring somewhere in the world every nine
days for the last fifty years. The USA has
conducted the equivalent of one nuclear weapons
test every 17 days since its first test the
Soviet Union has tested on average every 23
days France every 63 days Britain every 349
days and China every 222 days. India has
conducted only one test so far.
back
11
CIF 2009 Nuclear Disarmament Challenges,
Opportunities and Next Steps Benchmark
1 Definitions
Nucleus (pl. nuclei) 1. the central or basic
part of something 2. in chemistry the central
part of an atom, consisting of protons and
neutrons 2a. In biology the part of a cell that
contains chromosomes
Chain reaction a series of chemical or physical
reactions, each one of which causes the next one.
Nuclear weapon a powerful bomb or other weapon
that uses nuclear energy
Cold War the unfriendly relations that existed
between the Soviet Union and the West from the
end of the Second World War to the 1980s
Big Three 1. Allies of World War II the USSR,
the UK and the USA 2. Allied leaders of World War
II Iosiph Stalin, Winston Churchill, Franklin
Delano Roosevelt.
Arms race competition between countries to
increase the number of power of their weapons of
war
Nuclear fission the process of separating the
central part of an atom into parts in order to
produce nuclear energy.
Nuclear fusion the process of combining the
central parts of particular atoms, for example,
hydrogen atoms, in order to produce nuclear
energy.
next
back
English Dictionary for Advanced Learners,
MACMILLAN, 2007
12
CIF 2009 Nuclear Disarmament Challenges,
Opportunities and Next Steps Benchmark 1
How Nuclear Weapons Work
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Types of Nuclear Reactions
Objective 2 an understanding of the processes
involved in the production of nuclear weapons
in countries around the world
Nuclear Weapon States
Non-Nuclear Weapon States
Nuclear Weapons Stockpiles
Other Nuclear Weapon States
13
Types of Nuclear Reactions
Fission is splitting of the nucleus of an element
into fragments. Heavy elements such as uranium or
plutonium release energy when fission. The
reaction begins when nuclei absorbs a neutron.
Fissile isotopes like U233, U235, Pu239 fission
much easier than any other elements. Each isotope
has its critical mass, which allows a
self-sustaining chain reaction.
Fusion is combining of two light nuclei to form a
heavier one. Isotopes of light elements such as
hydrogen or lithium (deuterium and tritium are
used more often) can merge together to form an
atom of helium under the conditions of extreme
heat and pressure. Nuclear fusion releases a
large amount of energy.
Created by Yana Kuzmina, 10th form, 2006
Transmutation of U238 into Pu239 Natural Uranium
is irradiated in nuclear reactors to produce
Plutonium. After all Plutonium can be used both
for civilian uses (to produce energy) and
military uses (for nuclear weapons).
back
Created by Andrey Zavershinskiy, 11th form, 2004
14
How Nuclear Weapons Work
Gun-triggered type
Implosion-triggered type
Image http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FileGun- type
_fission_weapon_en-labels_thin_lines.svg

11 Mar.2009
The implosion device consisted of a sphere of
U235 (tamper) and a Pu239 core surrounded by high
explosives. When the bomb was detonated, this is
what happened - The explosives fired, creating
a shock wave. - The shock wave compressed the
core. - The fission reaction began. - The bomb
exploded.
The simplest way to bring the subcritical masses
together is to make a gun that fires one mass
into the other.
A sphere of U235 is made around the
neutron generator and a small bullet of U235 is
removed. The bullet is placed at one end of a
long tube with explosives behind it, while the
sphere is placed at the other end.
Imagehttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_ManInterio
r_of_bomb
14 Feb.2009
A barometric-pressure sensor determines the
appropriate altitude for detonation and triggers
the following sequence of events - The
explosives fire and propel the bullet down the
barrel. - The bullet strikes the sphere and
generator, initiating the fission reaction. -
The fission reaction begins. - The bomb explodes.
Little Boy was this type of bomb and had a
14.5-kiloton yield (equal to 14,500 tons of TNT)
Image http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File Implosio
n_Nuclear_weapon.svg 11 Mar.2009
Fat Man was the type of bomb and had a 23-kiloton
yield
Image http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Boy
14 Feb.2009
(Made by Yana Kuzmina, 10 form)
Hydrogen bomb
Basic Principles of Staged Radiation Implosion
at http//nuclearweaponarchive.org/Library/Telle
r.html 22.Jan.2009
Fusion bomb
A thermonuclear weapon derives most of its
explosive force from nuclear fusion. In a
thermonuclear weapon, radiation from a fission
explosion heats and compresses deuterium and
tritium, which then undergo fusion The fission
component of a thermonuclear weapon is called the
primary. The fusion component is called the
secondary. Thermonuclear weapons are
significantly more difficult to design, build,
and maintain than fission weapons The largest
nuclear weapon ever produced was the Tsar Bomba
tested by the Soviet Union on October 31, 1961.
Fusion materials isotopes of light elements
(hydrogen or lithium or deuterium and tritium are
used. Products of the reaction alpha particles
(He3 and He4), one extra neutron and energy. To
design a fusion bomb, some problems have to be
solved 1. Deuterium and tritium, fuel for
fusion, are both gases and hard to store. 2.
Tritium is in short supply and has a short
half-life, so the fuel in the bomb would have to
be continuously replenished. 3. Deuterium or
tritium has to be highly compressed at high
temperature to initiate the fusion reaction.
back
Tsar Bomba (museum in Sarov)
(Photo made by A. Zavershinskiy)
15
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Producing materials For military purposes For
civilian purposes


Metallic Uranium140
Uranium-235 About 1kg 0,714
Uranium-238 About 139 kg 99,28
Uranium-235 0,7 20 LEU
Plutonium-239 lt90
Reactor
Uranium-235 gt20 HEU
Plutonium-239 gt90
back
Weapon
Created by Andrey Zavershinskiy, 11th form, 2003
16
Nuclear Weapon States
"....For the purposes of this Treaty, a
nuclear-weapon State is one which has
manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or
other nuclear explosive device prior to 1
January, 1967." (Article 9, paragraph 3 of the
NPT) http//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Pro
liferation_Treaty
back
http//www.nti.org/db/disarmament/map.html
17
Nuclear Weapon Stockpiles
The table includes stockpiles and operational
weapons
Estimated Nuclear Arsenals of the Nuclear Weapon
States
back
Nuclear Stockpiles http//thebulletin.metapress.c
om/content/c4120650912x74k7/fulltext.pdf,
December 2009
(From The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by
Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, MIIS
page 49)
18
Other States with Nuclear Weapons
Israel Strongly suspected of possessing nuclear
weapons but have never tested nuclear devices or
declared itself a nuclear weapon state never
joined NPT estimated 75-200 warheads India
peaceful nuclear test in 1974, weapons test
1998 never joined NPT 30-35 warheads Pakistan
nuclear tests 2 weeks after India in 1998 never
joined NPT 24-48 warheads North Korea withdrew
from NPT (according to Pyongyang) tested nuclear
device October 2006, 1-2 warheads, possibly as
many as 8
back
(Source The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by
Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, MIIS
page 50)
19
Non-Nuclear Weapon States
The states which dont have nuclear weapons can
be called Non-Nuclear weapon states. Most of
those states have declared themselves as Nuclear
Weapons Free Zone and are members of the
Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
Programs ending before NPT began Australia,
Egypt, Sweden, Canada Factions Within Advocated
for or Sought Nuclear Weapons, but these
Ambitions Ended by the Time NPT Started Italy,
Japan, Germany, Norway Programs that Ended After
1970 Brazil, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan,
Yugoslavia, Romania and South Africa (which had
weapons, and gave them up in the early
1990s) Programs that began after 1970, but have
been given up Iraq and Libya Suspected of
nuclear intentions (but no program proven) Iran,
Syria, Algeria Inherited Nuclear Weapons, but
Now Non-Nuclear Weapon States Party to the NPT
Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine
back
Source Historical Map of Military Fissile
Material and Nuclear Weapons Programs
http//isis-online.org/mapproject/worldmap.html
20
CIF 2009 Nuclear Disarmament Challenges,
Opportunities and Next Steps Benchmark 1
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
States of Proliferation Concern
Other Nuclear Threats
Objective 3 an understanding of the
reasons/motivations behind efforts of various
countries to acquire nuclear weapons
Nuclear Weapon Free Zones
Nuclear Weapon States
Comparison of Different Types of Weapons
Resources Used
Reasons/motivations to acquire nuclear weapons
21
States of Proliferation Concern
North Korea declared itself a nuclear weapon
state, spreading missile technology, suspected
of spreading nuclear technology. Iran refuses
to comply UN Security Council resolutions
requesting Iran to stop its enrichment and
reprocessing related work, insisting that the
nuclear fuel cycle is its right under the
NPT.Iran is developing the full peaceful
nuclear fuel cycle weaponization activities
suspected but unproven. Syria appears to have
built a Calder Hall type reactor (like North
Koreas),
back
22
North Korea declared itself a nuclear weapon
state, spreading missile technology, suspected
of spreading nuclear technology.

• North Koreas nuclear program
• Weapons program based on plutonium uranium
  enrichment program has been suspected.
• on 9th October 2006 exploded successful
  underground nuclear test in Hwaderi, near Kilju
  City, at 1036am local time North Koreas
  Korean News Agency
• Advanced missile program, but probably cannot
  construct a small enough nuclear warhead to mount
  on a missile
• Current Status
• Significant differences on details of the full
  accounting of Pyongyangs plutonium program
  remain
• September 2008 North Korea reverses
  disablement
• October 2008 U.S. removes North Korea from list
  of state sponsors of terrorism
• Verifying North Koreas nuclear declaration and
  dismantlement of its nuclear complex remains
  problematic

back
23

• Iran refuses to comply UN Security Council
  resolutions requesting Iran to
• stop its enrichment and reprocessing related
  work, insisting that the nuclear
• fuel cycle is its right under the NPT.
• Iran is developing the full peaceful nuclear
  fuel cycle weaponization
• activities suspected but unproven.

• There remain a number of outstanding
• issues, identified in the Director Generals
• last report to the Board (GOV/2008/38,
• paragraph14), which give rise to concerns
• and need to be clarified to exclude the
• existence of possible military dimensions
• to Irans nuclear programme.
• The Agency currently has no
• Information apart from the uranium
• metal document on the actual design or
• manufacture by Iran of nuclear material
• components of a nuclear weapon or of
• certain other key components, such as
• initiators, or on related nuclear physics
• studies (GOV/2008/38, paragraph 21).
• Nor has the Agency detected the actual
• use of nuclear material in connection with

back
24
On 23rd June 2008 IAEA visited Dair Alzour a
military but not a nuclear site. Syria stated
that the only explanation for the significant
number of anthropogenic uranium particles was
that they were contained in the missiles used to
destroy the building. IAEA has yet to receive
permission to visit 3 other sites which could be
Relevant. (Source Implementation of the NPT
Safeguards Agreement in the Syrian Arab
Republic, GOV/2008/60, 19 November 2008,
http//www.armscontrolwonk.com/file_download/142/g
ov2008-60.pdf, 18 Feb.2009)
Syria
back
25
Other Nuclear Threats

• The threat of nuclear proliferation becomes
  really a problem in the modern world because
• The number of states with nuclear reactors and
  peaceful nuclear programs grows rapidly
• The number of spent fuel storages and the amount
  of spent fuel become greater every year
• Risk for the spent fuel to be stolen by
  terrorists in order to use it in their
  unpredictable purposes, mainly for terrorist
  attacks, sabotage or other threats.

• Nuclear terrorism
• Terrorists have essentially four mechanisms by
  which they can exploit military and civilian
  nuclear assets
• around the globe to serve their destructive ends
• The theft and detonation of an intact nuclear
  weapon
• The theft or purchase of fissile material leading
  to the fabrication and detonation of a crude
  nuclear weapon an improvised nuclear
  device (IND)
• Attacks against and sabotage of nuclear
  facilities, in particular nuclear power plants,
  causing the release of large amounts of
  radioactivity
• The unauthorized acquisition of radioactive
  materials contributing to the fabrication and
  detonation of a radiological dispersion device
  (RDD) a dirty bomb or radiation emission
  device (RED)
• (From The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by
  Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, MIIS
  pages 3)
• Terrorists may try to acquire fissile material
  by purchase, diversion, or force for the purpose
  of fabricating
• a crude nuclear bomb, known more formally as an
  improvised nuclear device (IND).
• Two types of fissile material could be used for
  this purpose, highly enriched uranium or
  plutonium (Pu)
• These materials have been produced in great
  quantity in nuclear weapon and civilian nuclear
  energy
• programs around the world. Leaving aside material
  currently in nuclear weapon, themselves, many
• hundreds of tons of fissile material are
  currently dispersed at hundreds of sites
  worldwide, where they are
• being processed, used, or stored, often under
  inadequate security.
• (From The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by
  Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, MIIS
  pages 106)

back
The greater the availability of nuclear weapons,
highly-enriched uranium plutonium in the world,
the greater the risk of a nuclear terror
attack. (Source The Terrorist Threat to the
US Homeland , July 2007 http//www.dni.gov/press_
releases/20070717_release.pdf , 17 Feb.2009)
26
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Disposal (rad waste)
There are some serious problems concerning
nuclear terrorism. Each of them relates to
either nuclear weapon or nuclear waste theft or
diversion and instability in the regions where
there are plants for conversion, enrichment,
reprocessing. Another problem is insecurity of
spent fuel storages and transportation of the
spent fuel from a nuclear plant to a storage or
a reprocessing plant.
It is more difficult to maintain strict control
over fissile materials than over nuclear
weapons. Among other challenges, while the
latter can be easily identified and counted,
fissile materials are often handled in
difficult-to-measure bulk form, introducing
measurement uncertainties that can mask repeated
diversions of small quantaties of HEU or
plutonium from process streams and storage
areas. (Source The Four Faces of Nuclear
Terrorism by Charles D. Ferguson, William C.
Potter, MIIS page 106-107)
back
Created by Yana Kuzmina, 10th form, 2006
27
Comparison of Gun-Type to Implosion-Type
Improvised Nuclear Devices (IND)
giving a choice between building a gun-type or
an implosion-type device, terrorists probably
would choose to construct a gun- type device
because it is more likely to result in a nuclear
weapon producing a large explosive yield.
However, if nuclear terrorists had access only
to plutonium, they would be forced to build an
implosion-type device to achieve high yields, or
they could try to construct a low-yield gun-type
device terrorists who are motivated to build
INDs and who do not have access to sophisticated
technical skills would probably choose to
acquire sufficient HEU to produce a gun-type
device.
back
(Source The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by
Charles D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, MIIS
page 138-140)
28
Nuclear Weapon States
"....For the purposes of this Treaty, a
nuclear-weapon State is one which has
manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or
other nuclear explosive device prior to 1
January, 1967." (Article 9, paragraph 3 of the
NPT) http//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nuclear_Non-Pro
liferation_Treaty
back
http//www.nti.org/db/disarmament/map.html
29
Nuclear-Weapon Free Zones Around The World

• The first NWFZ proposal was set forth in 1958 by
  Polands Minister of Foreign Affairs Adam
  Rapacki who proposed the denuclearization of
  Europe comprising the territories of Poland,
  Czechoslovakia, East Germany and West Germany.
• On 23rd June 1961 the Antardtic Treaty entered
  into force, it prohibits nuclear explosions,
  radioactive waste disposal, and military
  deployments in the Antarctic Treaty Area (ATA).
• The next attempt to create a NWFZ was in 1963 by
  Finlands President Kekkonen who suggested the
  Northern countries to be declared a nuclear
  weapon free zone. It comprised Denmark, Finland,
  Iceland, Norway and Sweden.
• The Treaty of Tlatelolco established Latin
  America as a Nuclear Weapons Free Zone in 1967
• In 1983 Australia proposed to create a nuclear
  weapon free zone in the South Pacific. Australia,
  the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New
  Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Salomon
  Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu and Western
  Samoa, all of them members of the South Pacific
  Forum, signed the Rarotonga Treaty on August 6,
  1985, in the city of Rarotonga, capital of the
  Cook Islands, establishing the proposed zone.
  Afterwards the Republic of the Marshall Islands
  and the Federal State of Micronesia became
  eligible States for signing this Treaty.
• A decade after the Rarotonga Treaty and as a
  consequence of the Cold War end, the treaty
  creating a nuclear weapon free zone in South-East
  Asia, known as the Bangkok Treaty, was signed on
  December 15, 1995. This Treaty was originated by
  the Declaration of Kuala Lumpur signed in 1971,
  which defined the determination of the ASEAN
  States to assure recognition and respect for a
  Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) in
  South-East Asia. Afterwards, in December 1995,
  the 7 States of the ASEAN which are Brunei,
  Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,
  Thailand and Vietnam, as well as

Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar signed the Treaty
creating NWFZs in South-East Asia. Mongolia
declared its Free Status. The Pelindaba Treaty
was opened for signature on April 12, 1996, in
the city of Cairo. With the Pelindaba Treaty
there are 54 independent states of international
community that may be members of this nuclear
weapon free zone. Today 110 states of the world
which take part in the four existent nuclear
zones have sovereignty declared, both
unilaterally and by multilateral, by means of
their regional commitments, their political will
and from the ethical point of view, their desire
of refusing nuclear weapon explicitly 110
countries representing more than a half of the
whole international community.
back
Map from http//www.opanal.org/NWFZ/Frame2i.htm,
25 Jan.2009
30
Reasons / motivations of various countries to
acquire nuclear weapons
What might motivate a country to change direction
to peaceful use of nuclear energy and begin a
nuclear weapons program? To answer this question
the students-participants decided to conduct an
opinion poll among students in our school and
adults (their parents, relatives, teachers.
Summarizing the results of the poll, we can
emphasize some reasons and motivations for a
country to be eager to acquire nuclear weapons or
change its direction to peaceful use of nuclear
energy and begin a nuclear weapons
program. Motivations to pursue a nuclear weapons
policy can be the following 1. Authority, status
and influence 2. Deterrence of the use or threat
of use of nuclear weapons by another country 3.
Insecurity of its boarders 4. Ambitions and aids
to victory 5. Military and aggressive
neighborhood 6. Internal political or / and
military pressure 7. Aggression against more
powerful states 8. Other threats 9. Reduction of
spending money on conventional weapons 10. Just
in case
back
CONCLUSION
The motivations driving proliferation may change
from prestige and mutual deterrence to the
assurance of latitude to accomplish internal and
regional security tasks. The route that mid-sized
state might choose for nuclear proliferation for
maximum success and minimal risk of serious
adverse consequences may be changing. The
changes are driven by the same two factors that
have driven proliferation issues in the past
economics and technology. (Source The
Non-Proliferation Review, Summer 2001, Volume 8,
Number 2, MIIS, page 53)
31
CIF 2009 Nuclear Disarmament Challenges,
Opportunities and Next Steps Benchmark
1 Resources Used

• Wilhelm Röntgen http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilh
  elm_Conrad_RC3B6ntgen, 17 Jan.2009
• Marie Curie http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Cu
  rie, 17 Jan.2009
• Enrico Fermi http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_
  Fermi, 17 Jan.2009
• Leo Szilard http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeC3B3
  _SzilC3A1rd, 17 Jan.2009
• Igor Vasilevich Kurchatov http//encyclopedia.sta
  teuniversity.com/pages/10466/Igor-Vasilevich-Kurch
  atov.html
• Cold War Timeline http//www.guidetorussia.com/co
  ld-war-timeline.asp, January 2009
• Yalta the Beginning of the End
  http//library.thinkquest.org/10826/yalta.htm, 5
  Feb.2009
• Timeline of the Cold War http//library.thinkques
  t.org/10826/timeline.htm, January 2009
• Nuclear Stockpiles http//thebulletin.metapress.c
  om/content/c4120650912x74k7/fulltext.pdf,
  December 2009
• English Dictionary for Advanced Learners,
  MACMILLAN, 2007
• CD Open Physics, educational source for school
  teachers and students
• Textbook Physics for secondary schools, grade
  9th
• Textbook Physics for secondary schools, grade
  11th
• Encyclopedia of Physics (GAIS, Moscow, 1988-1989,
  edited by A.M. Prohorov)
• Dictionary of Physics for Schoolchildren
  (Knizhny dom, 2003, edited by V.N. Naumchik,
  E.M. Shpilevsky, S.L. Evsyuk)
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation, volume 1, PIR
  Centers Library, Moscow, 2002
• Pictures of different types of nuclear weapons
  http//www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission7.shtm
  l, http//www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission9.s
  html, January-February 2009
• The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism by Charles
  D. Ferguson, William C. Potter, Monterey
  Institute of International Studies, 2004, pages
  3,39,49,50,107,109,139,168
• The Non-Proliferation Review, Summer 2001, Volume
  8, Number 2, MIIS, page 53

back