Computer and Cognition a new foundation for design

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Approaches to Design within the context of
CSCW Winograd Flores Contribution

• Computer and Cognition - a new foundation for
  design
• Practical experience applying new theory to design

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The nature of design

• The relationship between computation and human
  thought/language.
• The interaction between understanding and
  creation w.r.t. inventions that result in changes
  to society.
• Functional understanding of technology must
  incorporate a holistic view of the network of
  technologies and activities into which our
  systems fit and we must recognise that new
  technical advances will change human practices,
  our languages and our understanding.

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The Rationalistic Tradition in Design
Main steps in general 1. Characterise the
situation in terms of identifiable objects with
well-defined properties. 2. Find general rules
that apply to situations in terms of those
objects and properties. 3. Apply the rules
logically to the situation of concern, drawing
conclusions about what should be done.
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RT in D - 2
Uses the rational decision making process 1.
List all the alternative strategies. 2. Determine
the consequences that follow from each
strategy. 3. Comparatively evaluate the different
consequences. And in AI 1. Determine the Task
Environment. 2. Develop an internal
representation of the TE. 3. Search through
alternative courses of action to reach desired
goal. 4. Select course of action that best
achieves goal.
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Problems with Rationalistic Tradition
Ignores phenomena that are not subject to the
rationalistic style of analysis. In reality,
knowledge may be partial and results may be
imperfectly anticipated. As applied in
Cognitive Science/AI, if programs are treated as
theories, then it is difficult to relate
programs/theories to cognitive mechanisms.
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Philosophical aspects of understanding and being
In designing CSCW systems, we need to examine
both the philosophy of understanding and being in
so far as they are relevant to our examination of
thought and language and to our understanding of
technology. Key points from Heidegger 1. Not
all implicit beliefs and assumptions can be made
explicit. 2. Practical understanding is more
fundamental than theoretical understanding. 3. We
do not relate to things primarily through having
a representation of them. 4. Meaning is
fundamentally social and cannot be reduced to
meanings ascribed by individual subjects.

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Thrownness
In everyday life, e.g. in meetings with users, we
experience thrownness we are not objective,
detached observers. You are throw into action
when you meet with users. You cannot easily step
back and reflect on the best course of
actions. The effects of actions cannot be
predicted - go with the flow. A stable
representation of the situation isnt possible -
understanding emerges piece-meal. Every
representation is an interpretation. Language is
action, not just stating facts. By speaking you
bring your interpretation to the group discourse.

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Break down and Readiness-to-hand
Objects and properties are not inherent in the
world, but arise only in the event of a breaking
down in which they become ready-to-hand. E.g.
when using a computer application such as group
editor, the members of the group focus on their
collaborative writing. Only if there is break
down in the editor, will the complex network of
properties reflecting the design of the system
emerge - thus designers need to consider how to
handle such break downs. A design constitutes an
interpretation of breakdown and a committed
attempt to anticipate future breakdowns.

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Implications for Design

• In designing groupware, the following issues need
  to be addressed
• Unintended transfer of power.
• Unanticipated effects.
• Obscuring responsibility.
• False belief in objectivity.
• Guidelines
• 1. Design systems so they are ready-to-hand -
  not necessarily so they mimic human faculties.
• 2. Anticipate breakdown - I.e. situation of
  non-obviousness which lead to unconcealing of
  the works.
• 3. Be aware of blindness - be open to exploring
  new possibilities.

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A new vision of design
There are no clear problems to be solved, but a
sense of irresolution that opens up opportunities
for action. Any organisation of people is
constituted as a network of recurrent
conversations. Conversations are linked in
regular patterns of triggering and breakdown. In
creating tools, we are designing new
conversations and connections. Design includes
the generation of new possibilities. Computers
are tools for conducting the network of
conversations. Design is always happening.
Systems that work ultimately survive and evolve.

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Applying this approach
Case study - the design of The Coordinator, a
workgroup productivity system Not just designing
artifacts - designing practices as well as the
possibility for new realms of practice through
artifacts. The rationalistic approach is not the
one best suited to design in the office. Here we
need to focus on action through language and
concentrate on designing conversational systems
which constitute interventions in the world of
recurrent patterns of communication in which
language provides the coordination mechanism
between actions.

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The Coordinator
The Coordinator has been designed to provide
facilities for generating, transmitting, storing,
retrieving and displaying records of moves in
conversations requests and promises. Cf classic
e-mail systems that lack any conversation manager
and often result in users being swamped in
messages. Its primary menu is one for conversing
- the basic unit of work in the system is a
conversation, not a message. The conversations
can be retrieved on status - e.g. conversations
where the user has promised to do
something. Conversations can be open or closed
that is finished. A calendar is integrated into
The Coordinator for time-oriented retrieval. Its
based on an understanding of language, but
doesnt attempt to automate language
understanding.

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References

• Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores, Understanding
  Computers and Cognition A New Foundation for
  Design, Addison-Wesley, 1987.
• Fernando Flores et al, Computer Systems and the
  Design of Organizational Interaction, ACM Trans.
  On Office Information Systems, April 1988