The Future ofElectronic Games

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The Future of Electronic Games

• Lessons from the first 250,000 Years

Janet H. Murray, Prof and Director Graduate
Program in Digital Media Georgia Tech
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• Did games make us human?
• Games as cultural ratchets
• Games and mimesis
• Games and symbolic cognition
• Games and external media
• Games in a procedural medium where are they
  leading?

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Did games make us human?
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How did we become human?

• Primate to Homo Sapiens
• Too smart, too fast

2 M yrs humanoid 250,000 yrs archaic
sapients 50,000 yrs modern humans
6 M yrs from common ancestor 1-2 genetic
difference from chimps / bonobos
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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How did we become human?

• Merlin Donald
• Cognition linked to culture

Our culture and our brains co-evolve
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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How did we become human?

• Michael Tomasello
• Culture ratchets cognition

Our culture and our brains co-evolve
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Progress of hominid cognition Merlin Donald

• Mammalian episodic awareness self-awareness,
  event sensitivity, recognition of individuals
• Hominid mimetic gestures social bonding through
  imitation of patterns
• Homo sapiens symbolic communication, language,
  narrative, mythic framework
• Human culture external symbolic media

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Are games the missing link?

• Human children play rule-governed games by
  imitation, often without any formalized
  instruction. They invent and learn new games,
  often without using language.
• Apes, like other animals, cannot learn similar
  games they are restricted to games that, by our
  standards, are very simple The problem of
  bridging from ape to human would thus appear to
  involve a great deal more than pinpointing the
  arrival time of vocal language.
• Merlin Donald, Origins of the Human Mind

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Chimp v Baby experimental games
TomaselloDonalds Zone of Proximal Evolution
(after Vigotsky)
Chimp loses interest in synchronized task
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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How did we become human?

• Michael Tomasello
• Awareness of others minds

Human culture begins with awareness of shared
consciousness Appears in human babies at 9 months
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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How did we become human?

• Michael Tomasello
• Awareness of others minds

Coincides with the birth of narrative, causal
thinking
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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TomasellosJoint Attentional Scene resembles a
game
Shared limited focus
Witnessed intentionality
Symbolic communication
Self in relationship to others
Perspectival thinking
(Knucklebones)
Instruction
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Benefits of Joint Attentional Scene (Games)
Shared limited focus
Witnessed intentionality
Symbolic communication
Self in relationship to others
Perspectival thinking
Joint attentional scene
Instruction
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Toddler-Toddler Imitation Games

• Carol Eckerman, Duke U.
• Reciprocal imitation turn taking at same
  behavior e.g. jumping off a box, mimicking adult
  actions
• Follow the leader varied actions taking turns
  imitating
• Lead-follow imitation through space, rolling,
  running, etc.

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Games celebrate joint attention

• Eckermans observation
• "You can infer from the laughing and smiling
  going on that they really enjoy interacting with
  each other. Perhaps in these imitative
  interactions they are experiencing both their
  similarity to others and their separateness .
  Perhaps they are learning that we each are
  intentional agents of action and that playing
  together is a very pleasant thing."

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Imitation Games Precede Language

• Eckerman believes imitation games are a form of
  pre-verbal communication
• I expect that the children are using
  imitation of nonverbal actions as a way of
  reaching agreement on a topic for their
  interaction. So, when one child imitates another
  it may say something like 'let's do this
  together' and when the first child imitates back
  it's kind of like a confirmation 'yes, I like
  this too.

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Imitation Games Foster Language

• Eckermans observation of games leading to
  language
• First, they direct each other "Go," "Wait,"
  "Jump," "Watch me.
• Then, they answer one another My turn "You
  jump
• Finally, they describe their actions as they do
  them "I jump" or "Big jump!" while jumping off
  the box.

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Pleasure in shared pattern imitation, precedes
language

• Helen Keller initially
• learned Annie Sullivans hand
• signals as a new game,
• pleasurable,
• but devoid of meaning
• (cited by Merlin Donald)

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Reciprocal Mimetic Games form Society

• Merlin Donald
• Origins of the Modern Mind
• Language is not necessary for the development
  of complex social roles and rules but mimesis is
  essential.
• Reciprocal mimetic games are the basis of ritual
  and role definition.

Mimesis intentional non-linguistic
representational or imitative acts
Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Wittgenstein there is no essential game
Wittgensteins non-game Ring Around Rosy
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Wittgenstein there is no essential game

Wittgensteins non-game Ring Around Rosy
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Coordinated behavior is essential to games

Wittgensteins non-game Ring Around Rosy
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Ring Around Rosy is the quintessential mimetic
game
Wittgensteins non-game Ring Around Rosy
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Is our pleasure in and propensity for games a
driving force of biological/social/cultural
evolution?

• Adaptive pleasure in joint attentional scenes
• Adaptive pleasure in imitation, mirroring,
  repeating
• Adaptive pleasure in representational actions
  (mimesis)
• Laid the groundwork for symbolic thought
• Laid the groundwork for human social organization
• Laid the groundwork for media (gesture,
  performance, and language)

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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Progress of hominid cognition Merlin Donald

• Mammalian episodic awareness self-awareness,
  event sensitivity, recognition of individuals,
  limited repertoire of behavior patterns
• Hominid mimetic gestures social bonding through
  imitation and creative elaboration of behavior
  patterns
• Homo sapiens symbolic communication, language,
  narrative, mythic framework
• Human culture external symbolic media

Games and mimesis
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Mimetic Contests

• Observe a leader
• Imitate a leader
• Match words to actions

• Simultaneous actions
• Work for a goal
• Compare performances

Games and mimesis
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Abstract cognitive patternscounting,
sequencing, calculating, eye/hand

• knucklebones

mancala
Sheep anklebones, dice
Seeds holes, board
Games and abstract cognition
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Abstract social patterns turn-taking, contest,
betting

• knucklebones

mancala
Sheep anklebones, dice
Seeds holes, board
Games and abstract cognition
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Emotional social patterns performing,winning/los
ing, risk-taking, cheating

• knucklebones

mancala
Sheep anklebones, dice
Seeds holes, board
Games and abstract cognition
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Imitation, Follow the Leader
Computer as leader, culture maker
Games and mimesis
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Abstract cognitive patternssorting, matching,
ordering, eye/hand
Related to Turners small spatial narratives
fundamental to human thought and development of
language
Games and abstract cognition
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Counter Strike team synchronization,
coordinated contest within rule system
Games and mimesis
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Mimesis of forbidden acts
Acting out negative state Carnival inversion
Games and mimesis
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Progress of hominid cognition Merlin Donald

• Mammalian episodic awareness self-awareness,
  event sensitivity, recognition of individuals,
  limited repertoire of behavior patterns
• Hominid mimetic gestures social bonding through
  imitation and creative elaboration of behavior
  patterns
• Homo sapiens symbolic communication, language,
  narrative, mythic framework
• Human culture external symbolic media

Games and mimesis
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Games reflect mythic content of oral culture
Gambling, Fate Games, Divination
Games and symbolic media
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Evolution of symbolic media 7000 3000 BC
Games and symbolic media
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Counting multiples, mapping, sequencing,
proto-literacy
Royal Game of Ur 3000 BC
Games and abstract cognition
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Senet game as symbolic journey
Book of the Dead c 1250 BC Algorithm for
afterlife Played in this life and next
Games reflect and proceduralize narratives of
written culture narratives embellish game
patterns
Senet (Egypt) c 1550 BC
Games and symbolic media
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Games direct attention to the symbolic nature of
representation

• Language, puns riddles
• Token accumulation, play money
• Symbolic journeys, abstract maps
• Narrative elements drawn from other media

Games and symbolic media
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Progress of hominid cognition Merlin Donald

• Mammalian episodic awareness self-awareness,
  event sensitivity, recognition of individuals,
  limited repertoire of behavior patterns
• Hominid mimetic gestures social bonding through
  imitation and creative elaboration of behavior
  patterns
• Homo sapiens symbolic communication, language,
  narrative, mythic framework
• Human culture external symbolic media

Games and symbolic media
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Games help us explore the affordances of
external mediaAccounting and game patterns
Abacus counting tables resembled backgammon
boards Abacus comes from word for sand
Games and abstract cognition
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Abstract representation of complex systemsGames
grow to complexity supported by available media
http//easports.com 2004
Alphonso Xs Book of Games 1250
Games and abstract cognition
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Reckoning counters in the age of print
Nuremburg 1550 (British Museum) (.3 centimeter
diameter) Image of backgammon like calculating
table and of alphabet The European equivalent of
abacus for all arithmetic
Games and abstract cognition
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Simulation as calculation
Games and abstract cognition
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21st century abacus and reckoning counter
Games and abstract cognition
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Synthesis of mimetic and symbolic media patterns

• Chase
• Collect, enumerate
• Counters on a board
• Journey across a map
• Maze
• Supernatural ghosts

Games and symbolic media
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Joint Attentional Scene
Shared limited focus
Witnessed intentionality
Symbolic communication
Self in relationship to others
Perspectival thinking
Instruction
The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Games and media innovation

• Joint attention leads to focused mimesis, new
  communication conventions
• Mimesis leads to new forms of synchronized
  behaviors more organized joint attention
• Synchronized behaviors lead to more powerful
  symbolic communication, more complex causality
  connections (narratives)
• All of which leads to more sophisticated,
  expressive external media

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Games in a procedural medium where are they
leading?

• Reinventing the Joint Attentional Scene for
  human/human and human/machine conventions for
  establishing focus
• Synchronizing behaviors human/machine and global
  human-to-human through rule-based machine
  behaviors
• Inventing rule-based, emergent story-telling
• All of which leads to more sophisticated,
  expressive external media new expressive genres,
  more organized collective cognition

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Pleasure of joint attention in mass
interactioninteractive TV games
http//etv.gatech.edu
The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Online multiplayer games as mimetic communities
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Joint attentional pair is human/machine
Games and symbolic media
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Lack of social dimensionTurn-taking
machine-pacing
Games and abstract cognition
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Mimesis of Joint Attention

• Social Rituals
• Conflict
• Trading
• Conversation
• Parties
• Sexuality
• Games

Games and symbolic media
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Mimesis of a procedural medium

• Michael Mateas Andrew Stern
• Façade
• Reinvent joint attention, conversation and
  mutually readable gestures to create a shared
  space
• Not linear dramatic characters proceduralizes
  intention and joint attention

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Gonzalo Frasca Madrid (2004)
Games and mimesis
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Gonzalo Frasca Madrid (2004)
Enacting a ritual Mimesis of coordinated
actions Difficulty maps to sense of futility, but
the game is quietly winnable Losing messages
urges us to keep trying
Games and mimesis
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Culture ratchets cognition
Shared limited focus
Witnessed intentionality
Symbolic communication
Self in relationship to others
Perspectival thinking
Joint attentional scene
Instruction
The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Simulation games Overview/individual perspective
over parameterized world
The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Understanding multiple versions of an event

• Could Lee Harvey Oswald have murdered John F.
  Kennedy from the sixth floor of the Texas
  Schoolbook Depository?

The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Replay stories as explorations of character

• Sarah Cooper
• Reliving Last Night
• Joel Gooch
• Cookout

The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Understanding the effects of policy choices in
complex system
Ian Bogost, Persuasive Games
The kaleidoscopic future of games
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Spore (Will Wright 2005) Meta-mimetics of
shared procedural creation
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Progress of hominid cognition // progress of game
forms Merlin Donald

• Mammalian episodic awareness self-awareness,
  event sensitivity, recognition of individuals
• Hominid mimetic gestures social bonding through
  imitation of patterns
• Homo sapiens symbolic communication, language,
  narrative, mythic framework
• Human culture external symbolic media

Towards a Cognitive/Cultural Theory of Games
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If mimetic games make us human
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then
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What kind of games do we want to play?
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What kind of games do we want to make?
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• JANET.MURRAY_at_LCC.GATECH.EDU
• Digital Media at Georgia Tech
• B.S. Computational Media
• M.S. Information Design and Technology
• Ph.D. Digital Media
• HTTP//idt.gatech.edu
• HTTP//egl.gatech.edu (Experimental Game Lab)
• HTTP//etv.gatech.edu (Experimental TV Group)