Blood page 48 ibsg

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Blood page 48 ibsg

• General Composition of Blood

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• Changes in blood pressure, velocity, and the area
  of the arteries, capillaries, and veins of the
  circulatory system

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Structure of Heart (page 48 study guide)
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Red is oxygenated, blue is deoxygenated
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Blood flow though heart

• Howstuffworks "The Heart ( page 48 ibsg)

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Electrical Control of Heart Beat (page 48)
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• Howstuffworks "How Your Heart Works
• Page 169 study guide the cardiac cycle
• Tutorial 49.1 The Cardiac Cycle
• The Cardiac Cycle scroll down

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Pacemaker/ the beat
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Digestive System (page 165)

• Exocrine gland Observe the serous acini of the
  pancreas. Each acinus is composed of acinar cells
  
• Be prepared to draw drawing on page 165

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The digestive system

• Three fundamental processes
• Secretion Delivery of enzymes, mucus, ions and
  the like into the lumen, and hormones into blood.
  
• Absorption Transport of water, ions and
  nutrients from the lumen, across the epithelium
  and into blood.
• Motility Contractions of smooth muscle in the
  wall of the tube that crush, mix and propel its
  contents.

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Alimentary canal

• 2 main functions
• Digesting and absorbing nutrients
• Protecting from invasion

Trachea - windpipe
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Alimentary canal

• 2 main functions
• Digesting and absorbing nutrients
• Protecting from invasion

Trachea - windpipe
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Stomach
Short term storage reservoir (1L for up to 4h)
Digestion chemical (HCl and enzymes) - proteins
mechanical - liquefication of food
Slowly releases food into intestine
http//35.9.122.184/images/41-AnimalNutrition/41-1
6-Duodenum-L.gif
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Stomach Epithelium
Mucous goblet cells
Prevents self-digestion
Enzymes (pepsinogen) chief cells
Acid (HCl) parietal cells
pH 1-2 Kills bacteria Loosens fibrous
foods Activates pepsinogen Denatures salivary
amylase
Hormone (gastrin) G cells
Controls gastric motility and acid secretion
Stomach epithelial cells are some of the fastest
growing cells in the body, typically replacing
themselves about every 3 days
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Small Intestine
Around 6m in an adult Food takes 1-6 h to pass
through 2 main tasks digestion, absorption
3 parts Duodenum Jejenum Ileum
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Small Intestine cont.
Jejenum digestion/ absorption. 2.5m long
Ileum absorption. 4m long
Walls only one cell thick Villi, microvilli
increase surface area for absorption Rich blood
supply capillaries absorb water and soluble
nutrients (glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
minerals) and the blood carries the nutrients to
the liver, which stores nutrients and releases
them as required
Lacteal contains lymph. Fatty acids and
glycerol are absorbed by the epithelial cells
where they reform into fats. They become coated
in protein (chylomicrons) and pass into the lymph
in the lacteals. It takes around 18h for lymph to
rejoin the blood, the protein coat dissolves and
fats are absorbed into cells
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The small intestines

• Digestion within the small intestine produces a
  mixture of disaccharides, peptides, fatty acids,
  and monoglycerides.
• The final digestion and absorption of these
  substances occurs in the villi, which line the
  inner surface of the small intestine.
• Hole's Human Anatomy Physiology  Animation
  Activities go to small intestine digestion

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Large Intestine
1.5m long, 6cm diameter
Food stays 10h to a few days
Colon Reabsorbs water so waste is converted to
semi-solid faeces egested Diarrhoea,
constipation (fibre helps stimulate peristalsis)
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Bacteria
1-2kg of bacteria in your gut 4000 species
Bad - bacteria that can cause illness e.g. H
pylori (ulcers), Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria
(food poisoning)
Good symbiotic bacteria. These live in close
harmony with the body without causing harm, and
have additional health benefits. Probiotics are
live micro-organisms that, when consumed in
adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the
host. e.g. bifidobacteria, lactobacillus

• Aid digestion
• Break down toxins
• Produce vitamins B12 and K
• Stimulate the immune system
• Help prevent growth of cancers
• Convert prodrugs to drugs

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Bacteria
1-2kg of bacteria in your gut 4000 species
Bad - bacteria that can cause illness e.g. H
pylori (ulcers), Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria
(food poisoning)
Good symbiotic bacteria. These live in close
harmony with the body without causing harm, and
have additional health benefits. Probiotics are
live micro-organisms that, when consumed in
adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the
host. e.g. bifidobacteria, lactobacillus

• Aid digestion
• Break down toxins
• Produce vitamins B12 and K
• Stimulate the immune system
• Help prevent growth of cancers
• Convert prodrugs to drugs

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Duodenum digestion 25cm long
Pancreas pancreatic juice NaHCO3, enzymes
(insulin, glucagon) pH of duodenum 7-8
Amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
Liver bile made in liver, stored in gall
bladder Water, salts, bile salts Neutralise
HCl Digestion and absorption of fats and fat
soluble vitamins (emulsification) Waste products
eliminated by secretion into bile and elimination
in feces (e.g. bilirubin, biliverdin)

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More on pancreas

• The pancreas consists of clusters if endocrine
  cells (the islets of Langerhans) and exocrine
  cells whose secretions drain into the duodenum.
• Pancreatic fluid contains
• sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). This neutralizes the
  acidity of the fluid arriving from the stomach
  raising its pH to about 8.
• pancreatic amylase. This enzyme hydrolyzes starch
  into a mixture of maltose and glucose.
• pancreatic lipase. The enzyme hydrolyzes ingested
  fats into a mixture of fatty acids and
  monoglycerides. Its action is enhanced by the
  detergent effect of bile.

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Bacteria
1-2kg of bacteria in your gut 4000 species
Bad - bacteria that can cause illness e.g. H
pylori (ulcers), Salmonella, E. coli, Listeria
(food poisoning)
Good symbiotic bacteria. These live in close
harmony with the body without causing harm, and
have additional health benefits. Probiotics are
live micro-organisms that, when consumed in
adequate amounts, confer a health benefit to the
host. e.g. bifidobacteria, lactobacillus

• Aid digestion
• Break down toxins
• Produce vitamins B12 and K
• Stimulate the immune system
• Help prevent growth of cancers
• Convert prodrugs to drugs

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Duodenum digestion 25cm long
Pancreas pancreatic juice NaHCO3, enzymes
(insulin, glucagon) pH of duodenum 7-8
Amylase, lipase, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen
Liver bile made in liver, stored in gall
bladder Water, salts, bile salts Neutralise
HCl Digestion and absorption of fats and fat
soluble vitamins (emulsification) Waste products
eliminated by secretion into bile and elimination
in feces (e.g. bilirubin, biliverdin)

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More on pancreas

• consists of
• clusters if endocrine cells (the islets of
  Langerhans)
• and exocrine cells whose secretions drain into
  the duodenum.
• Pancreatic fluid contains
• sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). This neutralizes the
  acidity of the fluid arriving from the stomach
  raising its pH to about 8.
• pancreatic amylase. This enzyme hydrolyzes starch
  into a mixture of maltose and glucose.
• pancreatic lipase. The enzyme hydrolyzes ingested
  fats into a mixture of fatty acids and
  monoglycerides. Its action is enhanced by the
  detergent effect of bile.

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Liver
Weighs about 1.5kg Holds about 13 of total
blood Liver cell hepatocyte Unique ability to
regenerate average life 150 days
Right lobe
Left lobe
Blood rich in food from ileum
http//www.britishlivertrust.org.uk/content/liver/
about.asp
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Fig. 7.12,p. 130
sight, smell, taste of food
emotional states
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
smooth muscle or gland
Gut wall
sensory receptors
nerve network
Stimulus
Response
Gut lumen
change in food volume, composition in lumen
gut wall moves or substances secreted into lumen
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Fig. 7.13, p. 131
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Muscles and Skeleton
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Ligaments

• Ligaments are tough, elastic, connective tissue
  joining bone to bone.
• Ligaments limit the range of motion at a joint
  while providing joint stability.

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Tendons

• Tendons are thick, dense connective tissues
  attaching muscle to bone. They are a continuation
  of the fascia.
• Tendons are relatively inelastic and transmit the
  energy of muscle action to bone.

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Put it all together in the elbow
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• A sarcomere (or muscle functional unit) extends
  from Z line to Z line. Each sarcomere has thick
  and thin filaments..

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• The thick filaments are made of myosin and occupy
  the center of each sarcomere. Thin filaments are
  made of actin and anchor to the Z line.

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• Muscles contract by shortening each sarcomere.
  The sliding filament model of muscle contraction
  has thin filaments on each side of the sarcomere
  sliding past each other until they meet in the
  middle.
• Myosin filaments have club-shaped heads that
  project toward the actin filaments.

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Myosin head

• Myosin heads attach to binding sites on the actin
  filaments.
• swivel toward the center of the sarcomere
• detach and then reattach to the nearest active
  site of the actin filament.
• http//www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/1049155s1.m
  ov

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Thin myofilaments are composed of 3 types of
protein

• ACTIN
• TROPONIN
• TROPOMYOSIN
• Animation Myofilament Contraction

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• Animation Action Potentials and Muscle
  Contraction

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• Animation Quizzes crossbridge

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• Skeletal muscle relaxes when the nervous impulse
  stops.
• No impulse means that the membrane of the
  SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM is no longer permeable to
  calcium
• no impulse means that the CALCIUM GATES close

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Nerves, muscles and movements

• Nerve cells are called neurons.
• Nervous system divided into
• CNS ( brain and spinal cord)
• PNS ( peripheral nerves).

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Types of Neurons

• Sensory
• Motor neuron
• Interneuron

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• Sensory Neurone
• Afferent Neuron Moving away from a central
  organ or point
• Relays messages from receptors to the brain or
  spinal cord

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• Receptors in the Skin go to animation regarding
  sensory neurons.

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• Motor Neuron
• Efferent Neuron Moving toward a central organ
  or point
• Relays messages from the brain or spinal cord to
  the muscles and organs

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• Interneuron (relay neuron)
• Relays message from sensory neuron to motor
  neuron
• Make up the brain and spinal cord

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• Nerve impulse can be passed from the axon of one
  neurone to the dendron of another at a synapse. A
  nerve is a discrete bundle of several thousand
  neurone axons.

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The message

• http//www.mind.ilstu.edu/flash/synapse_1.swf
• Animation Function of the Neuromuscular Junction
  (Quiz 1)

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• Resting Membrane Potential
• When a neurone is not sending a signal, it is at
  rest.
• The inside of the neurone is negative relative to
  the outside.
• K can cross through the membrane easily
• Cl- and Na have a more difficult time crossing
• Negatively charged protein molecules inside the
  neurone cannot cross the membrane.

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• Resting Membrane Potential
• The membranes contain sodium-potassium pumps
  (NaKATPase).
• Uses ATP to simultaneously pump 3 sodium ions out
  of the cell and 2 potassium ions in.
• Animations

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• There are also sodium and potassium ion channels
  in the membrane.
• These channels are normally closed, but even when
  closed, they leak, allowing sodium ions to leak
  in and potassium ions leak out down their
  concentration gradients.

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• This creates an action potential.
• Chapter 39 Introduction
• Tutorial 44.2 The Action Potential

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Signal Transduction Across the Synapse

• When the wave of Action Potentials reach the end
  of the axon the electrical signal is converted
  into a chemical signal. 
• This chemical or neurotransmitter crosses the
  space (Synapse) between adjacent neurons and
  initiates an Action Potential on another neuron.

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• The action potential activates a calcium channel
  and Ca diffuses into the neuron.
• This Ca causes vesicles to fuse with the cell
  membrane. Through exocytosis, neurotransmitters
  (chemicals) are released into the synapse

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• These neurotransmitters diffuse across the
  synapse and bind to receptors on another neuron.
  This causes special Na channels to open and an
  action potential is initiated in the next neuron
• Once the message has been passed on to the next
  neuron, the neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into
  the axon, diffuses away or it is destroyed by an
  enzyme.
• Synapse

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Endocrine System
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• Hormones are grouped into three classes based on
  their structure
• 1. steroids
• 2. peptides
• 3. amines
• The Actions of Hormones - Learning Activity

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Steroids

• Steroids are lipids derived from cholesterol.
• secreted by the gonads, adrenal cortex, and
  placenta

• Examples include the sex steroids such as
  testosterone and adrenal steroids such as
  cortisol.

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Peptides

• synthesized as precursor molecules and processed
  by the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi where they
  are stored in secretory granules.

• short chains of amino acids most hormones are
  peptides.
• They are secreted by the pituitary, parathyroid,
  heart, stomach, liver, and kidneys

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Peptide hormones

• Animation Quizzes

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Amines

• derived from the amino acid tyrosine and are
  secreted from the thyroid and the adrenal medulla

• Amine hormones (notably epinephrine) are stored
  as granules in the cytoplasm until needed.

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The system at large.
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Pituitary and hypothalamus

• Howstuffworks "Pituitary Gland
• draw a diagram of the hypothalamus and the
  pituitary gland.
• include the portal vein connecting the
  hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland and
  the neurosecretory cells connecting the
  hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland.)

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• To see what the drawing would include look in
  your IB SG

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Hormones of both hypothalamus and pituitary

• Overview of Hypothalamic and Pituitary Hormones
  ( scroll down to chart of hormones)
• Anterior lobe of the pituitary
• Posterior lobe of the pituitary

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Control and Regulation

• The hypothalamus is involved in temperature
  regulation.
• Tutorial 41.1 Control, Regulation, and Feedback

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The following diagram shows how body temp. is
controlled in animals.
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Parathyroid

• Control of calcium levels http//www.mhhe.com/bios
  ci/genbio/animation_quizzes/graphics/inm5s1c.ram
• Parathyroid glands

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Adrenal cortex

• The adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids
  and glucocorticoids, which mobilize energy
  reserves during stress and maintain blood volume
  and blood composition. The adrenal medulla
  secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which
  ready the body to cope with an emergency

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• Feedback control of adrenal glands

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Pancreas

• The endocrine portion of the pancreas secretes
  insulin, which stimulates cells to take up
  glucose glucagon, which increases blood glucose
  levels and somatostatin, which controls the rate
  at which the blood absorbs nutrients. Hormones
  and glucose metabolism
• Animation Quizzes

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Glucose control

• .

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Prostaglandins

• Prostaglandins are lipids that form enzymatically
  when disturbed cell membranes release fatty
  acids. They function at the site where they are
  released, and are diverse They are found in many
  vertebrate tissues where they act as messengers
  involved in reproduction and in the inflammatory
  response to infection. Aspirin inhibits
  prostaglandin synthesis, leading to reduced
  inflammation.

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ADH and water balance

• ADH action

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Water control
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Thyroxin secretion by negative feedback

• Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete thyroid
  releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates cells
  in the anterior pituitary to secrete
  thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

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• TSH binds to receptors on epithelial cells in the
  thyroid gland, stimulating synthesis and
  secretion of thyroid hormones, which affect
  probably all cells in the body.

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This is an example of negative feedback

• When blood concentrations of thyroid hormones
  increase above a certain threshold, TRH-secreting
  neurons in the hypothalamus are inhibited and
  stop secreting TRH.