SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY MBAIII COMMON

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SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYMBA-III (COMMON)

• MB0034
• RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

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UNIT-1 An introduction to Research Methodology

• Research- Research simply means a search for
  facts-answers to questions and solutions to
  problems. It is a purposive investigation. It is
  an organized inquiry. It seeks to find
  explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify
  the doubtful facts and to correct the
  misconceived facts.

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• Young defines Research as a scientific
  undertaking which, by means of logical and
  systematic techniques, aim to
• Discover of new facts or verify and test old
  facts
• Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and
  casual explanations
• Develop new scientific tools, concepts and
  theories which would facilitate reliable and
  valid study of human behavior
• Kerlinger defines research as a systematic,
  controlled empirical and critical investigation
  of hypothetical propositions about the presumed
  elations among natural phenomena.

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Research and Scientific Method

• The scientific method is based on certain
  articles of faith. these are
• Reliance on Empirical Evidence
• Use of relevant concepts
• Commitment of Objectivity
• Ethical Neutrality
• Generalization
• Verifiability
• Logical Reasoning Process

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Characteristics of Research

• It is a systematic and critical investigation
  into a phenomenon
• It is a purposive investigation aiming at
  describing, interpreting and explaining a
  phenomenon
• It adopts scientific method
• It is objective an logical, applying possible
  test to validate the measuring tools and the
  conclusions reached
• It is based upon observable experience or
  empirical evidence
• Research is directed towards finding answers to
  pertinent questions and solutions to problems
• It emphasizes the development of generalization,
  principles or theories
• The purpose of research is not only to arrive at
  an answer but also stand up the test of criticism
  

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Purpose of Research

• Research extends knowledge of human beings ,
  social life and environment. The search is for
  answers for various types of questions What,
  Where, When, How and Why of various phenomena,
  and enlighten us.
• Research establishes generalization and general
  laws and contributes to theory building in
  various fields of knowledge
• Research brings to light information that might
  never be discovered fully during the ordinary
  course of life

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• Research verifies and tests existing facts and
  theory and these help improving our knowledge and
  ability to handle different situations
• General laws developed through research may
  enable us to make reliable predictions of events
  yet to happen
• Research aims to analyze interrelationship
  between variables and to derive causal e
  explanations thus enable us to have better
  understanding of the world
• Applied research aims at finding solutions to
  solving problems viz. socio economic problems,
  health problems, human relations problems etc.
• Research aids planning and thus contributes to
  national development .

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Pure Research is undertaken for the sake of
  knowledge without any intention to apply it in
  practice.
• Applied research is carried on to find solution
  to a real life problem requiring an action or
  policy decision it is thus problem oriented and
  action directed.
• Exploratory research which is also known as
  formulative research is the preliminary study of
  an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher
  has little or no knowledge

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• Descriptive study is a fact finding investigation
  with adequate interpretation
• Diagnostic study is similar to descriptive study
  but with a different focus
• Evaluation studies is a type of applied research.
  It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
  social or economic programs implemented or for
  assessing the impact of developmental projects on
  the development of the project areas
• Experimental research is designed to assess the
  effects of particular variables on a phenomenon
  by keeping the other variable constant or
  controlled
• Analytical study is a procedure or techniques of
  analysis applied to quantitative data. It is also
  known statistical method
• Historical research is study of past result and
  other information sources with a view to
  reconstructing the origin and development of an
  institution and discovering the trends in the
  past

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• Actions research is a concurrent evaluation study
  of an action program launched on solving a
  problem for improving an existing situation.
• Diagnosis
• Sharing of diagnostic information
• Planning
• Developing change program
• Initiation of organizational change
• Implementation of participation and communication
  process
• Post experimental evaluation
• Survey is a fact finding study which involves
  collection of data directly from a population or
  a sample thereof at particular time.

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UNIT-2 SELECTION FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

• Research really begins when the researcher
  experience some difficulty, i.e. a problem
  demanding a solution within the subject-are of
  his discipline. This general area of interest,
  however, defines only the range of subject-matter
  within which the researcher would see and pose a
  specific problem for research. Personal values
  play an important role in the selection of a
  topic for research. Social conditions do often
  shape the preference of investigation in a subtle
  an d imperceptible way.

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• R.L. Ackoffs analysis affords considerable
  guidance in identifying problem for research. He
  visualizes five components of a problem.
• Research-consumer
• Research-consumer's Objectives
• Alternative Means to Meet the Objectives
• Doubt in Regard to Selection of Alternatives
• There must be One of More environments to which
  the difficulty or problem pertains

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Choosing the Problem

• The sources from which one may be able to
  identify research problems or develop problems
  awareness
• Review of literature
• Academic experience
• Daily experience
• Exposure to field situations
• Consultations
• Brain storming
• Research
• Intuition

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Formulating the problem

• The selection of one appropriate researchable
  problem out of the identified problems requires
  evaluation of those alternatives against certain
  criteria. Which may be grouped into
• Internal Criteria
• External Criteria

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Internal Criteria

• Researchers Interest
• Researchers Competence
• Researchers own resources

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External Criteria

• Research-ability of the problem
• Importance and urgency
• Novelty of the problem
• Feasibility
• Facilities
• Usefulness and social relevance
• Research personnel

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Objective of Formulating the Problem

• A problem well put is half-solved. The primary
  task of research is collection of relevant data
  and the analysis of data for finding answers to
  the research questions. The proper performance of
  this task depends upon the identification of
  exact data and information required for the
  study. The formulation serves this purpose. The
  clear and accurate statement of the problem, that
  development of the conceptual model, the
  definition of the objectives of the study, the
  setting of investigative questions, the
  formulation of hypothesis to be tested and the
  operational definitions of concepts and the
  delimitations of the study determined the exact
  data needs of the study.

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Process of Defining the Problem

• Developing title
• Building a conceptual model
• Define the objective of the study

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Criteria of Good Research Problem

• Verifiable evidence
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Systematization
• Objectivity
• Recording
• Controlling conditions
• Training Investigators

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UNIT-3 HYPOTHESIS

• A hypothesis consists either of a suggested
  explanation for an observable phenomenon or of a
  reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal
  correlation among multiple phenomena.The
  scientific method requires that one can test a
  scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base
  such hypotheses on previous observations or on
  extensions of scientific theories. Even though
  the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often
  used synonymously in common and informal usage, a
  scientific hypothesis is not the same as a
  scientific theory. A Hypothesis is never to be
  stated as a question, but always as a statement
  with an explanation following it.

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Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

• Conceptual clarity
• Specificity
• Testability
• Availability of techniques
• Theoretical relevance
• Consistency
• Objectivity
• Simplicity

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Types of Hypothesis

• Causal hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis
• Alternative Hypothesis

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Concepts of Hypothesis Testing

• The level of Significance
• Decision Rule of Test of Hypothesis

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Type I Type II Errors

• Type I error, also known as an "error of the
  first kind", an a error, or a "false positive"
  the error of rejecting a null hypothesis when it
  is actually true. Plainly speaking, it occurs
  when we are observing a difference when in truth
  there is none. Type I error can be viewed as the
  error of excessive credulity.
• Type II error, also known as an "error of the
  second kind", a ß error, or a "false negative"
  the error of failing to reject a null hypothesis
  when it is in fact not true. In other words, this
  is the error of failing to observe a difference
  when in truth there is one. Type II error can be
  viewed as the error of excessive skepticism.

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Procedure for testing Hypothesis

• Making a formal statement
• Selecting a significant level
• Deciding the distribution to use
• Selecting a random sample computing an
  appropriate value
• Calculation of the probability
• Comparing the probability

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Testing of Hypothesis

• Z-testIt is based on the normal probability
  distribution and is used for judging the
  significance of several statistical measures,
  particularly the Mean.
• T-testIt is based on t-distribution and is
  considered an appropriate test for judging the
  significance of sample mean etc. when population
  variance is not known.
• X2-testIt is based on chi-square and as a
  parametric test is used for comparing a sample
  variance to a theoretical population variance is
  unknown.
• F-testIt is based on f-distribution and is used
  to compare the variance of the two-independent
  samples.

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UNIT-4 RESEARCH DESIGN

• A research design is a logical and systematic
  plan prepared for directing a research study. It
  specifies the objectives of the study the
  methodology and techniques to be adopted for
  achieving the objectives. It constitutes the blue
  print for the collection, measurement and
  analysis of data.It is the plan, structure and
  strategy of investigation conceived so as to
  obtain answers to research questions.

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RESEARCH DESIGN

• According to Jahoda and Destsch and Cook
  describe, A research design is the arrangement
  of conditions for collection and analysis of data
  in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
  research purpose with economy in procedure.
• A research design is the program that guides the
  investigator in the process of collecting,
  analyzing and interpreting observations.

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Characteristics of a Good Research Design

• It is a series of guide posts to keep one going
  in the right direction.
• It reduces wastage of time and cost.
• It encourages co-ordination and effective
  organization.
• It is a tentative plan which undergoes
  modifications.
• It has to be geared to the availability of data
  and the cooperation of the informants.
• It has also to be kept within the manageable
  limits.

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Components of Research Design

• Dependent and Independent variables
• Extraneous Variable
• Control
• Research hypothesis
• Experimental and control groups
• Treatments
• Experiment
• Experiment Unit

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Experimental Non-Experimental Hypothesis
Testing Research

• Hypothesis-Testing Research When the objective
  of a research is to test a research hypothesis.
• Experimental hypothesis testing research A
  research in which the independent variable is
  manipulated.
• Non-experimental hypothesis testing research A
  research in which the independent variable is not
  manipulated.

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Research Design in case of Exploratory Research
Studies

• Exploratory research studies are also termed as
  Formulative research studies. The main purpose of
  such studies is that of formulating a problem for
  more precise investigation or of developing the
  working hypothesis from an operational point of
  view.The major emphasis in such studies is on the
  discovery of ideas and insights.The three methods
  in the context of research design are
• The Survey of concerning literature
• Experience survey
• Analyses of insight-stimulating.

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Research Design in case of Descriptive
Diagnostic Research Studies

• Descriptive research studies are those studies
  which are concerned with describing the
  characteristics of a particular individual, or of
  a group, whereas as diagnostic research studies
  determine the frequency with which something
  occurs or its association with something
  else.From the point of view of the research
  design, the descriptive as well as diagnostic
  studies share common requirements.In descriptive
  as well as in diagnostic studies, the researcher
  must be able to define clearly, what he wants to
  measure and must find adequate methods for
  measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
  population he wants to study.

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• The research design must make enough provision
  for protection against bias and must maximize
  reliability.With due concern for the economical
  completion of the research study, the design in
  such studies must be rigid and not flexible and
  must focus attention on the following
• Formulating the objective of the study
• Designing the methods of data collection
• Selecting the sample
• Collecting the data
• Processing and analyzing the data
• Reporting the findings

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Research Design in case of Hypothesis-Testing
Research Studies

• Hypothesis-testing research studies generally
  known as experimental studies are those where the
  researcher tests the hypothesis of causal
  relationships between variables. Such studies
  require procedures that will not only reduce bias
  and increase reliability, but will permit drawing
  inferences about causality.Usually, experiments
  meet these requirements. Hence, when we talk of
  research design in such studies, we often mean
  the design of experiments.

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Principles of Experimental Designs

• The Principle of Replication
• The Principle of randomization
• Principle of local control

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Important Experimental Designs

• Before and After without control design
• After only with control design
• Before and after with control design
• Formal Experimental Designs
• Completely Randomized design(CR design)
• Randomized block design (RB design)
• Latin square design (LS design)
• Factorial design

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UNIT-5 CASE STUDY

• A case study is one of several ways of doing
  research whether it is social science related or
  even socially related. It is an intensive study
  of a single group, incident, or community.Other
  ways include experiments, surveys, multiple
  histories, and analysis of archival information.
• Rather than using samples and following a rigid
  protocol to examine limited number of variables,
  case study methods involve an in-depth,
  longitudinal examination of a single instance or
  event a case. They provide a systematic way of
  looking at events, collecting data, analyzing
  information, and reporting the results. As a
  result the researcher may gain a sharpened
  understanding of why the instance happened as it
  did, and what might become important to look at
  more extensively in future research. Case studies
  lend themselves to both generating and testing
  hypotheses.

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• Another suggestion is that case study should be
  defined as a research strategy, an empirical
  inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its
  real-life context. Case study research means
  single and multiple case studies, can include
  quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources
  of evidence and benefits from the prior
  development of theoretical propositions. Case
  studies should not be confused with qualitative
  research and they can be based on any mix of
  quantitative and qualitative evidence.
  Single-subject research provides the statistical
  framework for making inferences from quantitative
  case-study data. This is also supported and
  well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005) "The case
  study is a research approach, situated between
  concrete data taking techniques and
  methodological paradigms."

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CASE SELECTION

• When selecting a case for a case study,
  researchers often use information-oriented
  sampling, as opposed to random sampling. This is
  because the typical or average case is often not
  the richest in information. Extreme or atypical
  cases reveal more information because they
  activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in
  the situation studied. In addition, from both an
  understanding-oriented and an action-oriented
  perspective, it is often more important to
  clarify the deeper causes behind a given problem
  and its consequences than to describe the
  symptoms of the problem and how frequently they
  occur. Random samples emphasizing representative
  ness will seldom be able to produce this kind of
  insight it is more appropriate to select some
  few cases chosen for their validity.

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CASE SELECTION

• Three types of information-oriented cases may be
  distinguished
• Extreme or deviant cases
• Critical cases
• Paradigmatic cases.

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ASSUMPTIONS

• Cases selected based on dimensions of a theory
  (pattern-matching) or on diversity on a dependent
  phenomenon (explanation-building).
• No generalization to a population beyond cases
  similar to those studied.
• Conclusions should be phrased in terms of model
  elimination, not model validation. Numerous
  alternative theories may be consistent with data
  gathered from a case study.
• Case study approaches have difficulty in terms of
  evaluation of low-probability causal paths in a
  model as any given case selected for study may
  fail to display such a path, even when it exists
  in the larger population of potential cases.

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MAKING CASE STUDY EFFECTIVE

• The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a
  cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from
  its total context for the purposes of study must
  be considered a member of the particular cultural
  group or community. The scrutiny of the life
  histories of persons must be done with a view to
  identify the community values, standards and
  their shared way of life.
• The organic motto of action must be socially
  relevant. That is, the action of the individual
  cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to
  social stimuli or situation. In other words, the
  social meaning of behavior must be taken into
  consideration.

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• The strategic role of the family group in
  transmitting the culture must be recognized. That
  is, in case of an individual being the member of
  a family, the role of family in shaping his
  behavior must never be overlooked.
• The specific method of elaboration of organic
  material onto social behavior must be clearly
  shown. That is case histories that portray in
  detail how basically a biological organism, the
  man, gradually blossoms forth into a social
  person, are specially fruitful.
• The continuous related character of experience
  for childhood through adulthood must be stressed.
  In other words, the life history must be a
  configuration depicting the inter-relationships
  between the persons various experiences.

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• Social situation must be carefully and
  continuously specified as a factor. One of the
  important criteria for the life history is that a
  persons life must be shown as unfolding itself
  in the context of and partly owing to specific
  social situations.
• The life history material itself must be
  organized according to some conceptual framework,
  this in turn would facilitate generalizations at
  a higher level.

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UNIT-6 SAMPLING

• A part of population is known as sample. The
  method consisting of the selecting for study, a
  portion of the universe with a view to draw
  conclusions about the universe or population
  is known as sampling. A statistical sample
  ideally purports to be a miniature model or
  replica of the collectivity or the population
  constituted of all the items that the study
  should principally encompass, that is, the items
  which potentially hold promise of affording
  information relevant to the purpose of a given
  research.
• Sampling helps in time and cost saving. It also
  helps in checking their accuracy. But on the
  other hand it demands exercise of great care
  caution otherwise the results obtained may be
  incorrect or misleading.

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Advantages of Sample Survey

• The size of the population
• Amount of funds budgeted for the study
• Facilities
• Time

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Sampling Procedure

• Purpose of the survey
• Measurability
• Degree of precision
• Information about population
• The nature of the population
• Geographical area of the study and the size of
  the population
• Financial resources
• Time limitation
• Economy

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Characteristics of a Good Sample

• Representative ness
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Size

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METHODS OF SAMPLING

• Probability or Random Sampling
• A probability sampling scheme is one in which
  every unit in the population has a chance
  (greater than zero) of being selected in the
  sample, and this probability can be accurately
  determined. The combination of these traits makes
  it possible to produce unbiased estimates of
  population totals, by weighting sampled units
  according to their probability of selection.

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• Example We want to estimate the total income of
  adults living in a given street. We visit each
  household in that street, identify all adults
  living there, and randomly select one adult from
  each household. (For example, we can allocate
  each person a random number, generated from a
  uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select
  the person with the highest number in each
  household). We then interview the selected person
  and find their income.

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• People living on their own are certain to be
  selected, so we simply add their income to our
  estimate of the total. But a person living in a
  household of two adults has only a one-in-two
  chance of selection. To reflect this, when we
  come to such a household, we would count the
  selected person's income twice towards the total.
  (In effect, the person who is selected from that
  household is taken as representing the person who
  isn't selected.)

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• In the above example, not everybody has the same
  probability of selection what makes it a
  probability sample is the fact that each person's
  probability is known. When every element in the
  population does have the same probability of
  selection, this is known as an 'equal probability
  of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also
  referred to as 'self-weighting' because all
  sampled units are given the same weight.

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Non-Probability Sampling

• Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method
  where some elements of the population have no
  chance of selection (these are sometimes referred
  to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where
  the probability of selection can't be accurately
  determined. It involves the selection of elements
  based on assumptions regarding the population of
  interest, which forms the criteria for selection.
  Hence, because the selection of elements is
  nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow
  the estimation of sampling errors. These
  conditions place limits on how much information a
  sample can provide about the population.
  Information about the relationship between sample
  and population is limited, making it difficult to
  extrapolate from the sample to the population.

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• Example We visit every household in a given
  street, and interview the first person to answer
  the door. In any household with more than one
  occupant, this is a nonprobability sample,
  because some people are more likely to answer the
  door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most
  of their time at home is more likely to answer
  than an employed housemate who might be at work
  when the interviewer calls) and it's not
  practical to calculate these probabilities.

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Types of Probability Sampling

• Simple Random SamplingIn a simple random sample
  ('SRS') of a given size, all such subsets of the
  frame are given an equal probability. Each
  element of the frame thus has an equal
  probability of selection the frame is not
  subdivided or partitioned. Furthermore, any given
  pair of elements has the same chance of selection
  as any other such pair (and similarly for
  triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and
  simplifies analysis of results. In particular,
  the variance between individual results within
  the sample is a good indicator of variance in the
  overall population, which makes it relatively
  easy to estimate the accuracy of results.

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• However, SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error
  because the randomness of the selection may
  result in a sample that doesn't reflect the
  makeup of the population. For instance, a simple
  random sample of ten people from a given country
  will on average produce five men and five women,
  but any given trial is likely to overrepresent
  one sex and underrepresent the other. Systematic
  and stratified techniques, discussed below,
  attempt to overcome this problem by using
  information about the population to choose a more
  representative sample.
• SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when
  sampling from an unusually large target
  population. In some cases, investigators are
  interested in research questions specific to
  subgroups of the population. For example,
  researchers might be interested in examining
  whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job
  performance is equally applicable across racial
  groups. SRS cannot accommodate the needs of
  researchers in this situation because it does not
  provide sub samples of the population. Stratified
  sampling, which is discussed below, addresses
  this weakness of SRS.

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Stratified random Sampling

• Where the population embraces a number of
  distinct categories, the frame can be organized
  by these categories into separate "strata." Each
  stratum is then sampled as an independent
  sub-population, out of which individual elements
  can be randomly selected. There are several
  potential benefits to stratified sampling.
• Stratification process involves three major
  decisions. They are stratification base or bases,
  number of strata and strata sample sizes.
• Example University students may be divided on
  the basis of discipline, and each discipline
  group may again be divided into juniors and
  seniors.

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Systematic sampling

• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the
  target population according to some ordering
  scheme and then selecting elements at regular
  intervals through that ordered list. Systematic
  sampling involves a random start and then
  proceeds with the selection of every kth element
  from then onwards. In this case, k(population
  size/sample size). It is important that the
  starting point is not automatically the first in
  the list, but is instead randomly chosen from
  within the first to the kth element in the list.
  A simple example would be to select every 10th
  name from the telephone directory (an 'every
  10th' sample, also referred to as 'sampling with
  a skip of 10').

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Cluster Sampling

• It means random selection of sampling units
  consisting of population elements.Each such
  sampling unit is a cluster of population
  elements. Then from each selected sampling unit,
  a sample of population elements is drawn by
  either simple random selection or stratified
  random selection.Where the population elements
  are scattered over a wide area and a list of
  population elements is not readily available, the
  use of simple or stratified random sampling
  method would be too expensive and
  time-consuming.In such cases Cluster Sampling is
  usually adopted. The cluster sampling process
  involves Identify clusters, examine the nature
  of clusters, and determine the number of stages.

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Multi-stage and Sub-sampling

• Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster
  sampling in which two or more levels of units are
  imbedded one in the other. The first stage
  consists of constructing the clusters that will
  be used to sample from. In the second stage, a
  sample of primary units is randomly selected from
  each cluster (rather than using all units
  contained in all selected clusters). In following
  stages, in each of those selected clusters,
  additional samples of units are selected, and so
  on. All ultimate units (individuals, for
  instance) selected at the last step of this
  procedure are then surveyed.

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• This technique, thus, is essentially the process
  of taking random samples of preceding random
  samples. It is not as effective as true random
  sampling, but it probably solves more of the
  problems inherent to random sampling. Moreover,
  It is an effective strategy because it banks on
  multiple randomizations. As such, it is extremely
  useful.
• Multistage sampling is used frequently when a
  complete list of all members of the population
  does not exist and is inappropriate. Moreover, by
  avoiding the use of all sample units in all
  selected clusters, multistage sampling avoids the
  large, and perhaps unnecessary, costs associated
  traditional cluster sampling.

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Random Sampling with Probability Proportional to
Size

• The procedure of selecting clusters with
  probability Proportional to size (PPS) is widely
  used. If one primary cluster has twice as large a
  population as another, it is give twice the
  chance of being selected. If the same number of
  persons is then selected from each of the
  selected clusters, the overall probability of any
  person will be the same. Thus PPS is a better
  method for securing a representative sample of
  population elements in multi-stage cluster
  sampling.

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Double Sampling and Multiphase Sampling

• It refers to the subsection of the final sample
  form a pre-selected larger sample that provides
  information for improving the final selection.
• When the procedure is extended to more than two
  phases of selection, it is called multi-phase
  sampling. This is also known as sequencing
  sampling, as sub-sampling is done from a main
  sample in phases.

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Replicated or Interpenetrating Sampling

• It involves selection of a certain number of
  sub-samples rather than one full sample from a
  population. All the sub-samples should be drawn
  using the same sampling technique and each is a
  self-contained and adequate sample of the
  population.The replicated samples can throw light
  on variable non-sampling errors.But disadvantage
  is that it limits the amount of stratification
  that can be employed.

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Convenience or Accidental Sampling

• It means selecting sample units in a just hit
  and miss fashion e.g. interviewing people whom
  we happen to meet.This sampling also means
  selecting whatever sampling units are
  conveniently available e.g.a teacher may select
  students in his class. This method is also known
  as accidental sampling because the respondents
  whom the researcher meets accidentally are
  included in the sample.

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• Purposive (or judgment) Sampling this method
  means deliberate selection of sample units that
  conform to some pre-determined criteria. This is
  also known as judgment sampling.This involves
  selection of cases which we judge as the most
  appropriate ones for the given study. It is based
  on the judgment of the researcher or some expert.
  It does not aim at securing a cross section of a
  population. The chance that a particular case be
  selected for the sample depends on the subjective
  judgment of the researcher.

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• Quota Sampling It is a form of convenient
  sampling involving selection of quota groups of
  accessible sampling units by traits such as sex,
  age, social class etc.It is method of stratified
  sampling in which the selection within strata is
  non-random.
• Snow-Ball Sampling It is the colorful name for a
  technique of building up a list or a sample of a
  special population by using an initial set of its
  members as informants.

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UNIT-7 SOURCES OF DATA

• Data refers to information or facts usually
  collected as the result of experience,
  observation or experiment, or processes within a
  computer system, or premises. Data may consist of
  numbers, words, or images, particularly as
  measurements or observations of a set of
  variables. The data needed for a social science
  research may be broadly classified into a) Data
  pertaining to human beings, b) data relating to
  organization and c) Data pertaining to
  territorial areas.

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Personal Data

• Demographic and Socio-economic characteristics of
  individualAge, sex, Race, social class,
  Religion, Marital status, education, occupation,
  income, family size, life style etc.
• Behavioral variables Attitudes, opinions,
  awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions etc.
• Organizational data consist of data relating to
  an organizations origin, ownership, objectives,
  resources, functions, performance and growth.
• Territorial data are related to geo-physical
  characteristics, resource endowment, population,
  occupational pattern infrastructure degree of
  development etc.of spatial divisions like
  villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and
  the nation.

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Sources of Data

• Raw data is a term for unprocessed data, it is
  also known as primary data.. Raw data can be
  input to a computer program or used in manual
  analysis procedures such as gathering statistics
  from a survey.It is the original sources from
  which the researcher directly collects data that
  have not been previously collected.Primary data
  are first hand information collected through
  various methods such as observation,
  interviewing, mailing etc.

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Advantages of Primary Data

• It is the original source of data
• It is possible to capture the changes occurring
  in the course of time.
• It flexible to the advantage of researcher
• Extensive research study is based of primary data

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Disadvantages of Primary Data

• Primary data is expensive to obtain
• It is time consuming
• It requires extensive research personnel who are
  skilled
• It is difficult to administer

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Methods of Collecting Primary Data

• There are various methods of data collection. A
  method is different from a tool while a
  method refers to the way or mode of gathering
  data, a tool is an instruments used for the
  method. For example, a schedule is used for
  interviewing. The important methods are
• Observation
• Interviewing
• Mail survey
• Experimentation
• Simulation
• Projective technique

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Secondary Sources of Data

• Secondary data is collecting and possibly
  processing data by people other than the
  researcher in question. Common sources of
  secondary data for social science include
  censuses, large surveys, and organizational
  records.
• Secondary data analysis is commonly known as
  second-hand analysis. It is simply the analysis
  of preexisting data in a different way or to
  answer a different question than originally
  intended. Secondary data analysis utilizes the
  data that was collected by someone else in order
  to further a study that you are interested in
  completing.

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Secondary Sources of Data

• There are sources containing data which have
  been collected and compiled for another purpose.
  The secondary sources consists of readily
  compiled statistical statements and reports whose
  data may be used by researchers for their studies
  e.g. census reports, annual reports and financial
  statements of companies, statistical statements,
  reports of Government Departments. Annual reports
  of currency and finance published by the reserve
  bank of India , statistical statements relating
  to Co-operatives and Regional banks, published by
  the NABARD etc.

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Features of Secondary Sources

• They are readymade and readily available, and do
  not require the trouble of constructing tools and
  administering them.
• They consist of data which a researcher has no
  original control over collection and
  classification. Both the form and the content of
  secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly,
  this is a features which can limit the research
  value of secondary sources.
• Secondary sources are not limited in time and
  space. That is, there searcher using them need
  not have been present when and where they were
  gathered.

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Use of Secondary Data

• Specific information from secondary sources may
  be used for reference purpose.E.g. The general
  statistical information in the number of
  co-operative credit societies in the country,
  their coverage of villages, their capital
  structure, volume of business etc.
• It is used as bench marks against which the
  findings of research may be tested.e.g. the
  findings of a local or regional survey may be
  compared with the national averages the
  performance indicators of a particular bank may
  be tested against the corresponding indicators of
  the banking industry as a whole and so on.
• It may be used as the sole surface of information
  for a research project. Such studies as
  securities Market Behavior, Financial Analysis of
  companies etc.

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Advantages of Secondary Data

• Secondary data, if available can be secured
  quickly and cheaply.
• Wider geographical area and longer reference
  period may be covered without much cost. Thus,
  the use of secondary data extends the
  researchers space and time reach.
• The use of secondary data broadens the data from
  which scientific generalizations can be made.
• Environmental and cultural settings are required
  for the study.
• The use of secondary data enables a researcher to
  verify the findings bases on primary data.It
  readily meets the need for additional empirical
  support. The researcher need not wait the time
  when additional primary data can be collected.

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Disadvantages of Secondary Data

• It is not necessary that available data may meet
  our specific needs.
• The available data may not be as accurate as
  desired. To assess their accuracy we need to know
  how the data were collected.
• The secondary data are not up-to-date and become
  obsolete when they appear in print, because of
  time lag in producing them.For example
  population census data are published two or three
  years later after compilation, and no new figures
  will be available for another ten years.
• Finally, information about the whereabouts of
  sources may not be available to all social
  scientists.Even if the location of the source is
  known, the accessibility depends primarily on
  proximity.For example, most of the unpublished
  official records and compilations are located in
  the capital city, and they are not within the
  easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

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Evaluation of Secondary Data

• Data Pertinence
• Data Quality
• Data Completeness
• THANKS.

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UNIT-8 OBSERVATION

• Observation is either an activity of a living
  being (such as a human), consisting of receiving
  knowledge of the outside world through the
  senses, or the recording of data using scientific
  instruments. The term may also refer to any datum
  collected during this activity.

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Observation as a Scientific Method

• The scientific method requires observations of
  nature to formulate and test hypotheses. It
  consists of these steps
• Asking a question about a natural phenomenon
• Making observations of the phenomenon
• Hypothesizing an explanation for the phenomenon
• Predicting a logical consequence of the
  hypothesis
• Testing the prediction in a controlled
  experiment, a natural experiment, an
  observational study, or a field experiment
• Creating a conclusion with data gathered in the
  experiment

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• Observation plays a role in the second and fifth
  steps. However the need for reproducibility
  requires that observations by different observers
  be comparable. Human sense impressions are
  subjective and qualitative making them difficult
  to record or compare. The idea of measurement
  evolved to allow recording and comparison of
  observations made at different times and places
  by different people. Measurement consists of
  using observation to compare the thing being
  measured to a standard an artifact, process or
  definition which can be duplicated or shared by
  all observers, and counting how many of the
  standard units are comparable to the object.
  Measurement reduces an observation to a number
  which can be recorded, and two observations which
  result in the same number are equal within the
  resolution of the process.

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• Human senses are limited, and are subject to
  errors in perception such as optical illusions.
  Scientific instruments were developed to magnify
  human powers of observation, such as weighing
  scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes,
  thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and
  also translate into perceptible form events that
  are unobservable by human senses, such as
  indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers,
  oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters,
  MRI machines, radio telescopes, and DNA
  sequencers.
• One problem encountered throughout scientific
  fields is that the observation may affect the
  process being observed, resulting in a different
  outcome than if the process was unobserved. For
  example, it is not possible to check the air
  pressure in an automobile tire without letting
  out some of the air, changing the pressure.
  However, in most fields of science it is possible
  to reduce the effects of observation to
  insignificance by using better instruments.

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"Observer" personality trait

• People with "Observer" personalities are
  motivated by the desire to understand the facts
  about the world around them. Believing they are
  only worth what they contribute, Observers have
  learned to withdraw themselves, to watch with
  keen eyes, and to speak only when they think they
  can shake the world with their observations.
  Sometimes they do just that. However, some
  Observers are known to withdraw completely from
  the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending
  off social contacts with abrasive cynicism.
  Observers generally fear in competency and
  uselessness they want to be capable and
  knowledgeable above all else.

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UNIT-9 SCHEDULE QUESTIONNAIRE

• QUESTIONNAIRE A questionnaire is a research
  instrument consisting of a series of questions
  and other prompts for the purpose of gathering
  information from respondents. Although they are
  often designed for statistical analysis of the
  responses, this is not always the case. The
  questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.

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• Questionnaires have advantages over some other
  types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not
  require as much effort from the questioner as
  verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
  standardized answers that make it simple to
  compile data. However, such standardized answers
  may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also
  sharply limited by the fact that respondents must
  be able to read the questions and respond to
  them. Thus, for some demographic groups
  conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be
  practical.

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Questionnaire construction

• Question types
• Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of
  questions that the respondent has to answer in a
  set format. A distinction is made between
  open-ended and closed-ended questions. An
  open-ended question asks the respondent to
  formulate his own answer, whereas a closed-ended
  question has the respondent pick an answer from a
  given number of options. The response options for
  a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and
  mutually exclusive.

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• Four types of response scales for closed-ended
  questions are distinguished
• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options
  
• Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more
  than two unordered options
• Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more
  than two ordered options
• (bounded)Continuous, where the respondent is
  presented with a continuous scale
• A respondent's answer to an open-ended question
  is coded into a response scale afterwards.

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Types of Questionnaires

• Structured/ Standardized questionnaire
• Unstructured questionnaire

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Modes of sending Questionnaires

• Personal delivery
• Attaching questionnaire to a product
• Advertising questionnaire in a newspaper of
  magazine
• News stand insets

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Improving the Response Rate in a mail survey

• Quality printing
• Covering letter
• Advance information
• Incentives
• Follow-up-contacts
• Larger sample size

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Advantages of Questionnaire

• They are less costly than personal interviews, as
  cost of mailing is the same through out the
  country, irrespective of distance.
• They can cover extensive geographical areas
• Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as
  senior business executives who are difficult to
  reach in any other way.
• The respondents can complete the questionnaires
  at their convenience
• Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more
  anonymity than personal interviews.
• Mail surveys are totally free from the
  interviewers bias, as there is no personal
  contact between the respondents and the
  investigator.
• Certain personal and economic data may be given
  accurately in an unsigned mail questionnaire.

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Disadvantages of Questionnaire

• The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a
  country like India where the percentage of
  literacy is very low.
• The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence,
  the resulting sample will not be a representative
  one.

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Distinction b/w Schedules Questionnaires

• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondent
  whereas schedules are carried by the investigator
  himself.
• Questionnaires can be filled by the respondent
  only if he is able to understand the language in
  which it is written and he is supposed to be a
  literate. This problem can be overcome in case of
  schedule since the investigator himself carries
  the schedules and the respondents response is
  accordingly taken.
• A questionnaire is filled by the respondent
  himself whereas the schedule is filled by the
  investigator.

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UNIT-10 INTERVIEWING

• An interview is a conversation between two or
  more people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
  where questions are asked by the interviewer to
  obtain information from the interviewee. It is
  one of the prominent methods of data collection.
  It is done by using a structured schedule or an
  unstructured guide. It may be used either as a
  main method or as a supplementary one is studies
  of persons. It is the only suitable method for
  gathering information from illiterate or less
  educated respondents.People are usually more
  willing to talk than to write. Once report is
  established, even confidential information may be
  obtained. It permits probing into the context and
  reasons for answers to questions.

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Interview

• A meeting of minimum two expert- candidate
• Arranged to examine the suitability of the
  candidate
• Tested for subject knowledge, skills and desired
  behavior in a very limited time

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structured interview

• A structured interview (also known as a
  standardized interview or a researcher-administere
  d survey) is a quantitative research method
  commonly employed in survey research. The aim of
  this approach is to ensure that each interviewee
  is presented with exactly the same questions in
  the same order. This ensures that answers can be
  reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be
  made with confidence between sample subgroups or
  between different survey periods.
• Structured interviews are a means of collecting
  data for a statistical survey. In this case, the
  data is collected by an interviewer rather than
  through a self-administered questionnaire.
  Interviewers read the questions exactly as they
  appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of
  answers to the questions is often fixed
  (close-ended) in advance, though open-ended
  questions can also be included within a
  structured interview.

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• A structured interview also standardizes the
  order in which questions are asked of survey
  respondents, so the questions are always answered
  within the same context. This is important for
  minimizing the impact of context effects, where
  the answers given to a survey question can depend
  on the nature of preceding questions. Though
  context effects can never be avoided, it is often
  desirable to hold them constant across all
  respondents.

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Unstructured Interviews

• Unstructured Interviews are a method of
  interviews where questions can be changed or
  adapted to meet the respondent's intelligence,
  understanding or belief. Unlike a structured
  interview they do not offer a limited, pre-set
  range of answers for a respondent to choose, but
  instead advocate listening to how each individual
  person responds to the question.
• The method to gather information using this
  technique is fairly limited, for example most
  surveys that are carried out via telephone or
  even in person tend to follow a structured
  method. Outside of sociology the use of such
  interviews is very limited.

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Focused Interview

• This technique is used to collect qualitative
  data by setting up a situation (the interview)
  that allows a respondent the time and scope to
  talk about their opinions on a particular
  subject. The focus of the interview is decided
  by the researcher and there may be areas the
  researcher is interested in exploring.
• The objective is to understand the respondent's
  point of view rather than make generalizations
  about behavior. It uses open-ended questions,
  some suggested by the researcher (Tell me
  about) and some arise naturally during the
  interview (You said a moment agocan you tell me
  more?). The researcher tries to build a rapport
  with the respondent and the interview is like a
  conversation. Questions are asked when the
  interviewer feels it is appropriate to ask them.
  They may be prepared questions or questions that
  occur to the researcher during the interview. The
  wording of questions will not necessarily be the
  same for all respondents.

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Clinical Interview

• This is similar to the focused interview but with
  a suitable difference. While the focused
  interview is concerned with the effects of
  specific experience, clinical interview is
  concerned with broad underlying feelings or
  motivations or with the course of the
  individuals life experiences.
• The personal history interview used in social
  case work, prison administration, psychiatric
  clinics and in individual life history research
  is the most common type of clinical interview.
  The specific aspects of the individuals life
  history to be covered by the interview are
  determined with reference to the purpose of the
  study and the respondent is encouraged to talk
  freely about them.

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Depth Interview

• This is an intensive searching interview aiming
  at studying the respondents opinion, emotions
  or convictions on the basis of an interview
  guide. This requires much more training on
  inter-personal skills than structured interview.
  This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as
  well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.
• This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to
  encourage free expression of affectively charged
  information. If requires probing. The interviewer
  should totally avoid advising or showing
  disagreement. Of course, he should use
  encouraging expressions like uh-huh or I see
  to motivate the respondent to continue narration.
  Some times the interviewer has to face the
  problem of affections,i.e. the respondent may
  hide expressing affective feelings. The
  interviewer should handle such situation with
  great care.

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Approaches to Interview

• The Participants
• The relationship between the participants is a
  transitory one
• Interview is not a mere casual conversational
  exchange
• Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers
  to questions put verbally
• Interview is an inter-actionable process
• Interviewing is not a standardized process

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Qualities of Interviews

• Data availability
• Role perception
• The interviewer should also know his role
• Respondents motivation

107
Merits of Interview Method

• Greatest value of this method is the depth and
  detail of information that can be secured. When
  used with well conceived schedules, an interview
  can obtain a great deal of information. It far
  exceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data
  that can be secured.
• The interviewer can do more to improve the
  percentage of responses and the quality of
  information received than other method. He can
  note the conditions of the interview situation,
  and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such
  problems as the respondents unwillingness,
  incorrect understand of question, suspicion etc.

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• The interviewer can gather other supplemental
  information like economic level, living
  conditions etc. through observation of the
  respondents environment.
• The interviewer can use special scoring devices,
  visual materials and the like in order to improve
  the quality of interviewing.
• The accuracy and dependability of the answers
  given by the respondent can be checked by
  observation and probing.
• Interview is flexible and adaptable to individual
  situations. Even more, control can be exercised
  over the interview situation.

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Demerits of Interview Method

• Its greatest limitation is that it is costly and
  time consuming.
• The interview results are often adversely
  affected by interviewers mode of asking
  questions and interactions, and incorrect
  recording and also by the respondents faulty
  perception, faulty memory, inability to
  articulate etc.
• Certain types of personal and financial
  information may be refused in face-to-face
  interviews. Such information might be supplied
  more willingly on mail questionnaires, especially
  if they are to be unsigned.
• Interview poses the problem of recording
  information obtained from the respondents. No
  full proof system is available. Note taking is
  invariably distracting to both the respondent and
  the interviewer and affects the thread of the
  conversation.

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Interviewing techniques in Business Research

• Preparation
• Introduction
• Developing Rapport
• Carrying the interview forward
• Additional sittings
• Recording the interview
• Closing the interview
• Editing

111
Interview Problems

• Inadequate Response
• Interviewers Bias
• Non-Response
• Non-Availability
• Refusal
• Inaccessibility
• Methods and Aim of control of non-response

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Telephone Interviewing

• It is a non-personal method of data collection.
  It may be used as a major method or supplementary
  method.It will be useful in the following
  situations
• When the universe is composed of those persons
  whose names are listed in telephone
  directories,e.g. business houses, business
  executives, doctors, other professionals.
• When the study required responses to five or six
  simple questions e.g. radio or TV program survey.
• When the survey must be conducted in a very short
  period of time, provided the units of study are
  listed in telephone directory.

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• When the subject is interesting or important to
  respondents, e.g. a survey relating to trade
  conducted by a trade association or a chamber of
  commerce, a survey relating to a profession
  conducted by the concerned professional
  association.
• When the respondents are widely scattered.

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Group Interviews

• It is a method of collecting primary data in
  which a number of individuals with a common
  interest interact with each other. In a personal
  interview, the flow of information is multi
  dimensional. The group may consist of about six
  to eight individuals with a common interest. The
  interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free
  discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the
  subject under study. The discussion leader
  stimulates the group members to interact with
  each other. The desired information may be
  obtained through self-administered questionnaire
  or interview, with the discussion serving as a
  guide to ensure consideration of the areas of
  concern. In particular, the interviewers look for
  evidence of common elements of attitudes,
  beliefs, intentions and opinions among
  individuals in the group. At the same time, he