Welcome to Biology of Women

1
Welcome to Biology of Women
2
What are some health issues for women?

• Heart disease
• Breast cancer
• Colorectal cancer
• Osteoporosis
• Menopause
• Cervical cancer

• Uterine cancer
• Pregnancy and childbirth
• Nutrition
• Exercise
• Etc.

3
Some Recent CAD Research in Women

• Women tend to develop CAD later than men
• Some risk factors are similar for both sexes
• Women elevated triglyceride levels and low HDL
  levels
• Men elevated total cholesterol and LDL

4
External Genetalia

• Vulva - all the visible external genetalia
• Labia majora
• Labia minora
• Clitoris
• Urethra
• Hymen - membrane location occlusion?
• Vagina - tough lining, changes with time,
  discharge, lubrication, self-cleansing, referred
  pain, Bartholins glands

5
Internal Female Reproductive Anatomy

• Uterus - external os, cervix, internal os, body,
  fundus (http//www-medlib.med.utah.edu/WebPath/FEM
  HTML/FEM082.html)
• muscular, hollow, position varies
• Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes)
• Ovaries
• What is ectopic pregnancy?

6
The Pelvic Girdle

• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis
• Sacrum
• Coccyx

7
Variations in Pelvic Structure

• Anthropoid Deep pelvis (common in men, 20-30
  white women, 50 black women
• Android heart-shaped (also common in men, one -
  third white women, 10-15 black women
• Gynecoid 50 of women
• Platypelloid least common (pelvis is shallow
  but widens at the pelvic outlet)

8
Support of Pelvic Organs

• Spinal curvatures and the ilia
• Peritoneal lining attachments
• Underneath muscles and connective tissues
• Perineal muscles
• Levator ani muscles

9
Urinary Control and Incontinence

• Pubococcygeus muscle
• Exercises to help treat incontinence
• Kegel Exercises
• Bladder Training
• Other possible causes of incontinence
• neurological disorder
• obstruction to the bladder
• obstruction to the urethra

10
Hormonal Control of the Female Reproductive Cycle
11
Hormones

• Part of the endocrine system - definition
• Have an effect on a part of the body other than
  where it was produced
• Chemical messengers
• Composition
• Target cells
• Control of secretion nervous system, blood
  composition, feedback

12
Hormone Action

• Receptor binding - location
• Signal Transduction
• Steroid hormone effect in the nucleus

13
Prostaglandins

• Fatty acid derivatives
• Can be synthesized by almost all cells of the
  body
• Have regulatory effects - examples
• Why not technically hormones?

14
Pituitary Gland

• Location
• Examples of hormones it produces
• Growth hormone
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Prolactin
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)

15
Pituitary Gland, Continued

• Examples of hormones that it stores but does not
  produce
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Oxytocin
• How is the pituitary involved in the female
  reproductive cycle?

16
Steroid Hormones

• Produced by what structures? POTA
• The basic building block is cholesterol.
• Categories estrogens, androgens, progesterone,
  corticosteroids

17
Estrogen

• Any of a group of hormones (a general term)
• Physiological effects (vaginal lining, glycogen,
  cervical secretion, uterine lining, oviducts,
  breasts, bone formation, epiphyseal cartilage,
  fat deposition, cholesterol, LDLs, liver,
  hypothalamus, lower body temperature)

18
Effects of Progesterone

• Endometrial lining
• Inhibits uterine contraction
• Reduced motility of the oviducts
• Cervical mucus becomes viscous
• Body temperature
• Increase in excretion

19
Testosterone

• Produced by testes, ovaries, and adrenal glands
• Responsible for characteristics associated with
  males

20
Puberty

• Physical changes in body
• Menarche
• Ovulation

21
Female Reproductive Cycle

• Ovarian Cycle - follicular phase, ovulation,
  luteal phase
• Endometrial cycle - menstrual (proliferative)
  phase and the secretory (progestational) phase

22
Menstrual Problems

• What is normal?
• When is there an indication that there may be a
  problem?

23
Abnormal Uterine Bleeding Causes

• Endocrine disturbance
• Physical disturbance
• Estrogen level changes just before LH surge
• Spontaneous abortion
• Ectopic pregnancy

24
Treatment of Abnormal Bleeding

• Surgery
• hysterectomy
• endometrial ablation
• Steroids

25
Amenorrhea Causes

• Cryptomenorrhea (silent)
• Emotional Factor
• Prolactin overproduction
• Nutrition
• GnRH inhibition
• Anorexia nervosa and bulemia

26
Dysmenorrhea

• Definition
• Normal?
• Etiology (cause) theories blood supply to
  uterus, too much estrogen, not enough estrogen,
  imbalance in the E/P ratio, too much
  progesterone, food allergy, prostaglandin
• Treatments prostaglandin inhibitors, oral
  contraceptives, surgery, heat, relaxation

27
Toxic Shock Syndrome

• Possible symptoms - fever, rash, skin-peeling,
  low blood pressure, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle
  aches or damage, irritation of mucous membranes,
  urinary abnormalities, liver enzyme levels, CNS
  problems
• Possible treatment - fluid replacement,
  antibiotics

28
Toxic Shock Syndrome, Continued

• Cause? - Staphylococcus aureus toxin investigated
• Can your body be protected by developing
  antibodies against the toxin?
• Relationship to age?
• Relationship to polyester and carboxymethylcellulo
  se
• Relationship to tampon absorbency

29
Endometriosis

• Definition
• Can it cause infertility?
• What causes endometriosis?
• Symptoms?
• Diagnosis - blood levels of a certain molecule
  found on endometrial cells, pelvic exam,
  laparoscopy, tissue biopsy

30
Endometriosis, continued

• Treatments hormonal treatment (oral
  contraceptives, testosterone derivative,
  progestin, FSH and LH inhibitors), surgery

31
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

• Symptoms - psychological, physical, cyclic (same
  time each menstrual cycle)
• Etiology - Edema? Elevated estrogen levels of
  estrogen/progesterone levels? Abnormality of
  levels of other hormones? Vitamin B6 deficiency
  (estrogen clearance, needed for production of
  certain neurotransmitters)?

32
PMS, Continued

• Possible treatments diuretics, painkillers,
  prostaglandin-inhibitors, high doses of vitamins,
  tranquilizers, reduction of salt and/or sweets
  and/or caffeine in the diet, exercise

33
Genetic Differences Between Males and Females

• Genetic material is house within the nucleus of
  each eukaryotic cell.
• What else is it found in cells?
• How is the genetic material of human males
  different from human females
• Why does this genetic difference cause other
  differences between males and females?

34
Meoisis

• Duplication of DNA and nuclear membrane breaks
  down
• Homologous chromosomes pair, exchange of genetic
  material
• Chromosomes move to equatorial plane of the cell
• Homologous chromosomes separate

35
Meoisis, Continued

• Chromosomes again move to the equatorial plane of
  the cell
• Sister chromatids separate
• Nuclear membrane reappears, genetic material
  becomes uncoiled again
• Cytokinesis
• How many sperm/ova produced from one cell?

36
Comparison of the X and Y Genes

• Size
• Genes in common
• Genes not in common

37
More Questions

• Are there females with only one X Chromosome?
• Are there males with two or more X chromosomes?

38
Amniocentesis

• Procedure
• What information is gained?
• What are the risks? Rupture of membranes,
  bleeding, puncture of baby, puncture of mothers
  organs
• If done, usually done in second trimester, if

39
Chorionic Villi Sampling

• Insertion of catheter into the uterus
• A small amount of tissue is taken from what will
  be the babys contribution to the placenta
• Can be done earlier than amniocentesis (between
  7th and 10th weeks of pregnancy)
• Risks higher miscarriage rate, cramping,
  vaginal bleeding, infection

40
Chromosomal Disorders

• Downs Sydrome
• Turners Syndrome
• Klinefelters sydrome

41
Sex Differentiation in Humans

• Completed mostly before 12th week of development
• Primordial germ cells
• Genital tubercle - 4th week
• Gonads become visible - 5th week
• Gonads have zones - 7th week

42
Male Sex Differentiation

• Y-chromosome TDF
• Seminiferous Tubules develop
• Testosterone secreted (Masculinization)
• Epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle,
  ejaculatory duct all from mesonephric duct
• Mullerian duct regresses

43
Female Sex Differentiation

• Location of ovary-inducing genes not known
• Testosterone not secreted by baby
• Mullerian duct inhibitor not secreted by baby
• Mullerian tubes become oviducts, uterus, and part
  of vagina

44
The Male and Female Brain

• Are there gender differences ?
• Communication
• Sexual arousal
• Size of sexually dimorphic nucleus of
  hypothalamus
• Size of corpus callosum

45
Female Sexuality
46
Alfred Kinsey

• Who was he?
• What did he do?
• What were the flaws of his research?

47
Physiology of the Female Sexual Response

• Vagina - dilation, lubrication, (vasocongestion),
  then constriction, contractions
• Uterus - vasocongestion (engorged with blood),
  contractions
• Clitoris - vasocongestion, change in position
• Labia - swelling or flattening out

48
Physiology of the Female Sexual Response,
Continued

• Bartholin Glands - secrete a small amount of
  fluid
• Breasts - swelling and nipple erection
• Skin - flush in 75
• Muscle Tension - increases, then can decrease
• Cardiovascular - heart rate goes up, blood
  pressure increases

49
Physiology of the Female Sexual Response,
Continued

• Respiratory - respiration rate eventually
  increases
• Sweat Glands - perspiration

50
Physical Disabilities and Sex

• Safety Concerns
• Spinal Injury
• - 50 to 70 of men still capable of having an
  erection
• in women, there is a period of amenorrhea, but
  then capable of conceiving and delivering a child

51
Pregnancy and Sex

• Some concern about spontaneous abortion during
  first trimester
• Some concern about premature labor and infection
  in last trimester

52
Drugs and Sex

• Alcohol - Depresses the central nervous system
• Anticholinergic - block action of parasympathetic
  nerve fibers
• Antiadrenergic - block action of sympathetic
  nerve fibers

53
The Mammary Glands
54
Breast Morphology

• Variance - fatty tissue, connective tissue,
  glandular tissue
• What causes this variance?
• Lobes, lobules, alveoli cells and lactiferous
  ducts
• Muscle only in areola-complex
• Blood supply

55
Lymphatic Drainage of the Breasts

• What is tissue fluid? Lymph? Edema?
• What is the purpose of the lymphatic system?
• What are lymph nodes, and what is their role in
  fighting cancer?

56
Changes in the Breasts

• During puberty of a female
• During Pregnancy - colostrum
• During menstrual cycles
• Cell proliferation
• Dilation of Ducts
• More cells become secretory
• Blood flow
• Fluid Retention

57
Fibrocystic Disease

• Cysts
• Fibroadenoma
• Symptoms
• Significance
• Treatments investigate (what worked?)-
  estrogen/progesterone balance, androgen, avoid
  caffeine, vitamin E, vitamin B complex, reduction
  in salt intake, surgery

58
Cancer

• Definition
• The cell cycle and checkpoints
• Etiology
• Why avoid smoking, chewing tobacco, sun, mutagens?

59
Breast Cancer

• gender
• age
• previous breast cancer
• genetic predisposition
• hyperplasia in breast, lobular carcinoma in situ,
  late menopause, late age of first childbirth,
  breast density, early menstruation, estrogen
  prescriptions, breast radiation, obesity, high
  fat diet

60
Detection

• BSE - How to do it? What to look for?
• Mammography (X-rays) - What to look for?
• Thermography
• Ultrasound
• Radionucleotides
• Biochemical Markers

61
Treatment

• Surgery - radical mastectomy, modified radical
  mastectomy, total mastectomy, partial mastectomy
• Radiation
• Chemotherapy - page 259

62
Are Hormones Implicated in Some Cases of Breast
Cancer?

• Estrogen
• Progesterone
• Tamoxifen use as an anti-cancer drug

63
How Does our Immune System Fight Cancer?

• B - cells
• T - cells
• Natural killer cells
• Phagocytes
• Lymphokines

64
Stages of Breast Cancer

• Stage 0 - noninvasive abnormal growth
• Stage 1 - early invasion of nearby tissue
• Location
• Size of tumor
• Stage 2
• Location
• Size of tumor
• Stage 3 - Larger than 2 inches with spread to
  lymph nodes
• Stage 4

65
Internet References

• http//cancernet.nci.nih.gov/clinpdq/therapy/Quest
  ions_and_Answers_About_Tamoxifen.html
• http//cancernet.nci.nih.gov/cancer_types/breast_c
  ancer.shtmltoc9

66
Recent Advances in Breast Cancer Research

• T-scan electricity
• MRI scan - Magnetic Resonance Imaging (looking
  for vascularity)

67
Gynecological Difficulties
68
Candidiasis

• Caused by a yeast (a type of fungus)
• Etiology yeast not kept in check (perhaps
  because it has lowered competition, more food
  present, etc), corticosteroid therapy, being
  rundown, malnourished, too-frequent douching
• Symptoms

69
Candidiasis, continued

• Diagnosis - see picture on page 288
• Treatment

70
Trichnomonas vaginalis

• Protozoan - picture page 291
• Symptoms of infection
• Treatment

71
Bacterial Vaginosis

• Gardnerella vaginalis (a bacterium)
• Symptoms usually no itching or burning odor
  discharge
• Treatment

72
Herpes Genitalis

• Caused by two types of viruses (Whats a virus?)
• HSV-1 causes roughly 15-20 of genital herpes
• HSV-2 causes about 80 of genital herpes, and
  greater chance for recurrence

73
Herpes Genitalis, Continued

• Symptoms tingling, itching, burning, pain,
  blisters, ulcers, headaches, body aches,
  tenderness, swollen lymph nodes
• Can be asymptomatic
• The virus can remain latent after first infection
  and may cause later subsequent infections

74
Genital Herpes, Continued

• Transmission
• Diagnosis - viral culture and/or a Tzanck smear
  test
• Treatment - dryness, cleanliness, possible local
  anesthetic and/or painkiller, possibly antiviral
  drugs
• No cure

75
Genital Herpes, Complications

• Miscarriage or premature delivery if active
  infection during pregnancy
• Infection of baby during delivery is possible if
  mom is infected

76
Hepatitis

• Inflammation of the liver
• Caused by a group of viruses
• Transmission - many bodily fluids, polluted water
  and foods, mother-to-baby transmission
• Vaccine for hepatitis-B and hepatitis-A

77
Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

• Clinical symptoms rare
• Complications - lungs, liver, pregnancy, babies
• Transmission - some bodily fluids

78
Genital Warts

• HPV
• Some forms linked with cervical cancer
• Transmission
• How are the warts removed?
• Usefulness of interferon

79
Gonorrhea

• Bacterial infection (hard to culture)
• Can be asymptomatic in women and in a few men
• Symptoms in women - discharge, painful urination
• Complications abscesses inflamed fallopian
  tubes, ovaries, and peritoneum liver problems
  joint problems heart infection brain
  infections eye infections in babies

80
Gonorrhea, continued

• Antibiotic resistance is becoming a problem
• Protective immunity?

81
Syphilis

• Caused by a bacterium
• Complications can be severe
• Transmission sexual intercourse, open lesions
• Disease progresses in stages
• Complications in pregnancy
• Immunity?

82
Chlamydia

• Complications that can result PID, infertility,
  ectopic pregnancy, tissue inflammation around
  liver
• One type is a contagious eye disease
• One type is sexually transmitted and can cause
  genital sore and elephantiasis.
• Another type is sexually transmitted and can
  cause genitourinary infections, eye problems,
  pneumonia in newborns

83
Chlamydia

• Diagnosis
• Treatment

84
Pubic lice

• Symptoms
• Treatment
• Avoiding reinfection

85
Scabies

• Caused by a burrowing mite
• Symptoms
• Treatment

86
Urinary Tract Infection

• Symptoms
• Complications
• Causes
• Treatments

87
Benign Conditions of the Cervix

• Erosion
• Nabothian cysts
• Laceration
• Cervicitis
• Polyp
• Cervical incompetence

88
Cervical Cancer

• What is an indication of possible cervical
  cancer?
• Dysplasia - risk factor
• Carcinoma in situ
• Invasive cancer
• Treatments
• DES - Diethylstilbestrol

89
Tumors of the Uterus

• Fibroids - links to genetics, links to hormones,
  location, size, composition, complications,
  treatments
• Cancerous uterine tumors - risk factors,
  symptoms, diagnosis, treatment

90
Ovarian Growths

• Follicular cysts and corpus luteum cysts -
  causes, symptoms, treatment, complications
• Benign neoplasms
• Cancerous tumors - symptoms, detection, genetic
  link, treatment

91
Gynecological Exam

• Medical history, including gynecological history,
  obstetric history, contraception history, any
  complaints
• External exam - breast, abdomen, external
  genetalia
• Internal exam - cervix, vagina, Pap smear,
  digital exam, bimanual exam, rectal exam

92
HIV and AIDS
93
Life Cycle of HIV-1,The Beginning of a Cycle

• Binding
• Fusion
• Entry
• Uncoating

94
Life Cycle of HIV-1, Continued

• Reverse Transcription
• Formation of Partner Strand
• Entry into Nucleus
• Integration

95
Life Cycle of HIV-1,The End of a Cycle

• Proteins coded for by the virus are made.
• Virion Assembly
• Virion Release

96
Some Characteristics of Retroviruses

• The genetic material is RNA.
• A DNA copy of the RNA can be made by host cell.
• The DNA copy then can be integrated into the host
  cell chromosome.

97
Examples of Enzymes Within the Core of HIV

• Reverse Transcriptase
• Integrase
• Ribonuclease
• Protease

98
HIV Resistance

• CCR5 gene is mutant in some cases
• The CCR5 delta 32 gene seems to code for a
  coreceptor that HIV-1 cannot use
• At least three people with two mutant genes are
  HIV positive

99
What causes AIDS?

• Depletion or inactivation of T-helper cells?
  (proposed by many to be the predominant cause of
  AIDS)

100
HIV Infection

• Diagnosis
• Transmission
• Opportunistic infections
• Treatment

101
Childbearing
102
Pregnancy

• Fertilization - barriers, prevention of an ovum
  being fertilized by more than one sperm, meiosis
  completes, nuclear material combines
• Morula, blastocyst, invasion of uterine lining
• Amniotic sac, yolk sac, chorion, allantois
• Placenta - sythesizes fats, carbohydrates , and
  proteins hormone production

103
Pregnancy, continued

• Twins - fraternal and identical
• Diagnosis of pregnancy
• Maternal changes during pregnancy - uterus (size,
  blood flow, contractions) cervix (softens, pH,
  secretion, plug) ovaries oviducts vagina
  breasts digestive system circulatory system
  excretory system musculoskeletal changes skin
  changes

104
Pregnancy, continued

• Complications Preeclampsia-eclampsia placental
  bleeding, gestational diabetes
• Spontaneous abortions
• Weight gain
• Nutrition - vitamins, calcium, proteins, iron,
  folic acid
• Effects of certain drugs alcohol, tobacco,
  caffeine

105
Labor and Delivery

• First stage - condition of cervix
• Second stage - episiotomy?
• Third stage - delivery of placenta and membranes
• Fourth stage - period following birth
• The concern about group B streptococci
• Pain relief during labor - systemic drugs,
  regional blocks, psychoprophylaxis

106
Intervention in the Birthing Process

• Administration of drugs
• Induction of labor
• Artificial rupture of membranes
• Use of forceps
• Episiotomy and repair
• Massage of fundus of uterus to hasten the
  expulsion of the placenta

107
Intervention, continued

• Manual removal of placenta
• Stress tests
• Heart rate monitoring of the baby
• Cesarean Sections
• Ultrasounds

108
Breastfeeding

• Anti-infective properties of human milk
• Effects on mother - uterus, infertility
• What negative components might breast milk
  contain?

109
Infertility
110
Possible Causes of Infertility or Difficulty in
Conceiving a Child

• Increasing Age
• Low number of sperm
• Decreased viability of sperm
• Volume of ejaculate
• Viscosity of semen
• Motility of sperm
• Shape of sperm

111
Conception Problems, Continued

• Clumping of sperm
• Diseases
• Temperature
• No ovulation
• Abnormal ovum
• Blocked oviducts (hydrosalpinx, etc.)
• Location of egg

112
Conception Problems, Continued

• Viscosity of cervical mucus
• pH of Cervical mucus
• Immune reactions against sperm
• Possible immune reactions against ova
• Displaced cervix

113
Problems of Sustaining a Pregnancy

• Not enough hormone production
• Scars

114
In Vitro Fertilization

• Ovulation Induction
• Retrieval of Oocytes
• Fertilization
• Transfer to the uterus
• Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI).

115
GIFT

• What is it?
• How is it done?

116
ZIFT

• What is it?
• How is it done?

117
Fertility Drugs

• What kinds of drugs are used to enhance
  fertility?
• How do these drugs work?
• Multiple births a factor?

118
Contraceptives

• Physical barriers
• Chemical means

119

• Some methods considered as birth control by
  some actually prevent the continued development
  of a baby (IUD, morning after pill, minipill,
  progestin implants, progestin shots, abortion,
  etc.

120
Oral Contraceptive Side Effects

• Breast cancer risk factor?
• Cervical cancer risk factor?
• Lowers risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer
• Liver and gall bladder disease risk factor
• Risk to unborn baby
• Blood clot risk factor
• Risk factor for other cardiovascular problems

121
Abortion Procedures

• Suction
• Dilation and Curettage
• Dilation and Extraction
• Partial Birth Abortion
• Injection of saline or prostaglandin
• RU-486 (Mifepristone!!) similar in structure to
  natural progesterone, but acts as an
  antiprogesterone also antiandrogenic

122
What Factors Lead to Menopause?

• Number of follicles
• Hormones
• Frequency of ovulations

123
The Question of Estrogen Replacement

• How much estrogen is secreted during menopause?
• What kind of estrogen is secreted during
  menopause?
• What are the known risks of estrogen replacement?
• What are the known benefits of estrogen
  replacement?

124
Biological Changes During Menopause

• Menstrual cycles gets increasingly irregular and
  eventually stops
• Coronary disease risk increases
• Osteoporosis incidence higher
• Hot flashes and flushes
• Genital atrophy
• Mood swings reported by some

125
Health concerns that sometimes may have an
occupational factor
126
Migraines

• What are migraines?
• What are some possible symptoms of migraines?
• Possible Causes
• Possible Treatments
• Are any types of migraines linked to occupational
  work?

127
Stress

• What are some symptoms of stress?
• What are some causes of stress?
• How can one cope with stress?

128
What are some workplace health concerns?

• Lung problems
• Cancer
• Hearing problems
• Physical injury
• Reproductive problems
• Chemical exposure to skin
• Nervous system problems
• Ionizing radiation

129
Workplace health concerns, continued

• Nervous system problems
• Ionizing radiation
• Carpal tunnel syndrome

130
Skin Structure and Care
131
Epidermis

• Location
• How thick? How many layers?
• What kind of cells?
• Ridges, pores

132
Dermis

• Location?
• Much thicker than the epidermis
• What type of cells?

133
Skin Questions

• What is a blister?
• What is a scar?
• How is new skin formed?
• How is the skin anchored to the rest of the body?
• What are freckles?
• What are goose bumps?
• What are the effects of sun exposure?

134
Skin Pigmentation

• Melanin
• Carotene
• Red blood vessels

135
Skin Functions

• Temperature
• Protection
• Respond to stimuli
• Excretion
• Participation in vitamin D synthesis
• Immunity

136
Epidermal Derivatives

• Hair
• Nails
• Glands

137
Skin Cancer

• Types
• Causes
• Treatments
• Prevention
• Who is most at risk?

138
Skin Wrinkling

• Causes
• Treatments

139
Oily, Dry, or Combination Skin

• Definitions of these skin conditions
• What causes these skin conditions?
• How can these conditions be treated?

140
Acne

• What is the cause of the acne?
• How does acne develop?
• Microcomedo, whiteheads and blackheads, nodes,
  and cysts
• Treatments? Benzoyl peroxide (kills bacterium,
  may reduce oil production) salicylic acid,
  resorcinol and sulfur break down blackheads and
  whiteheads antibiotics tretinoin stops the
  development of new comedones and increases cell
  turnover, isotretinoin, androgen reduction

141
Hair

• Hair loss
• Hair growth
• Hair structure
• Hair care
• Artificial hair curling

142
Multiple Sclerosis
143
What is Multiple Sclerosis?

• Myelin destruction
• Neuron function can be altered

144
Causes of MS

• Genetics?
• Autoimmune disease?
• Environmental factor?

145
Symptoms of MS

• Are they always severe?
• Are they long in duration?
• Vision problems, muscle weakness and spasms,
  ataxia, pain, impairment of some senses, etc.

146
Treatments Used in Some MS Patients

• Immunotherapy - drugs, radiation, antibodies,
  plasma, marrow
• Nerve impulse conduction therapy - potassium
  channel blockers
• Antigen targeting therapy - copolymer 1, T-cell
  vaccine
• Cytokines - TGF (transforming growth factor),
  IL-4 (an interleukin)
• Remyelination - oligodendrocytes
• Diet

147
Other Treatments for Some MS Patients

• Muscle relaxants
• Tranquilizers
• Physical therapy
• Physical support aids
• Avoid excess activity and heat
• Antidepressants
• Aspirin or acetominophen

148
Treatments, Continued

• Anticonvulsants
• Electrical stimulation
• Codeine
• Catheterization
• Bladder pacemaker

149
How are nerve signals conducted?

• Charge distribution
• Depolarization - what is it and how does it
  occur?
• Repolarization - what is it and how does it
  occur?
• Sodium-Potassium pump
• What is the role of myelin?

150
Nutrition
151
Carbohydrates

• Building block?
• Sources
• How are they used by our body?

152
Proteins

• Building block?
• Sources?
• How are they used by our body?

153
Lipids

• What are they composed of?
• Sources?
• How are they used by our body?

154
Vitamins

• Definitions
• Examples B vitamins important for formation of
  some coenzymes, as is niacin and biotin folic
  acid (blood cell formation) C and E are
  antioxidants A D K

155
Minerals

• Definition
• Examples - Sodium, potassium, chloride,
  magnesium, phosphorus, and calcium, Iron