NWC at NPS S

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NWC at NPS SP RETROSPECT PROSPECTK.J.
Hagan04 June 2004

• AFTERMATH
• Of
• AMERICAN WARS
• Since
• THE REVOLUTION

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OUTLINE of LECTURE

• INTRODUCTION
• THE REVOLUTION (1775-1783)
• QUASI-WAR (1798-1800)
• WAR OF 1812 (1812-1815)
• MEXICAN WAR (1846-1848)
• CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)
• SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898)
• WORLD WAR I (1914-1919)
• WORLD WAR II (1939-1945)
• KOREAN WAR (1950-1953)
• VIETNAM WAR (1964-1975)
• GULF I (1990-1991)

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INTRODUCTION

• Clause War is continuation of policy by other
  means.
• Clause no nation goes to war unless it knows why
  its fighting.
• Clause fog of war makes unpredictability
  inevitable.
• SP has taken you through case studies of origins
  of war, conduct of wars and briefly to their
  ends, using Clause Sunny as guides
• Today lets look at some of the unintended
  consequences of past American wars.
• Idea is to suggest that even if a nation knows
  why it is going to war the war will yield
  unexpected results that subject it to choices of
  policy and strategy thatwhile quite
  differentmay be no more congenial than the ones
  for which the nation went to war.
• Purpose is to suggest that the chaos in Iraq and
  the uncertainty of future American policy in the
  Middle East are not entirely without organic
  precedent.

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THE REVOLUTION (1775-1783)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War
• Independence based on Enlightenment ideas and
  Sacred Rights of Englishmen
• How It Was Fought
• Through attrition G.W., partisans or
  guerrillas N. Greene, guerre de course at sea
  French alliance (coalition warfare)
• Alterations During War
• In strategy from set pieces to attrition
  dependence on French alliance after 1778
• Nominal Results at Termination
• Independence
• Unexpected Aftermath of Revolutionary War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF REVOLUTIONARY WAR
(1783-1790S)

• Extreme decentralization, that is, 13 largely
  autonomous and loosely federated states bred
  chaos and impotence
• Felt most strongly in areas of taxation and
  conduct of foreign relations.
• Lack of a national army led to crisis of security
  due to inability to defend frontier against
  Indians or to force promised British evacuation
  of Northwest Forts.
• Result extra-legal Constitutional Convention
  Constitution (1787) Army, State, Treasury
  departments.
• Tangible Evidence new frigates to subdue Barbary
  Pirates in Mediterranean and thus protect
  commerce.

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QUASI-WAR (1798-1800)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War French naval
  harassment of U.S. merchant vessels desire to
  terminate entangling alliance with France John
  Adams pique at French attempt to bribe his
  diplomats a normal French procedure
• How It Was Fought Without declaration of war by
  Congress gallant frigate actions on high seas
• Alterations During War Suspension of civil
  liberties Alien and Sedition Acts creation of
  SecNav building of frigates permanence of USN.
• Nominal Results at Termination End of alliance
  end of French harassment of shipping
• Unexpected Aftermath of Quasi-War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF QUASI-WAR (1800-1812)

• Unpopularity of war cost John Adams reelection
  fractured and destroyed forever the Federalist
  Party Jefferson, perceived as radical atheist,
  elected president and focus of presidency shifted
  from merchant classes to farmers (including slave
  owners)
• By alienating French put U.S. more at mercy of
  British, who impressed seamen and interdicted
  trade with continent of Europe
• By showing resolution to French may have
  contributed to Napoleons decision to sell
  Louisiana Territory in 1803

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WAR OF 1812 (1812-1815)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War Dispute over freedom
  of the seas (i.e., trade with belligerents
  Britain and France) British impressment of
  American mariners Brit. Inciting of Indians on
  frontier
• How It Was Fought Guerre de course at sea
  mini-fleet actions on Lakes battles on frontier
  desperation as British burned Washington and
  attacked New Orleans
• Alterations During War Tacit abandonment of war
  aims to get peace before British really invaded
  North America
• Nominal Results at Termination Status Quo Ante
  Bellum (S.Q.U.A.B.)
• Unexpected Aftermath of War of 1812

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OFWAR OF 1812 (1815-1850)

• In a word Second War for Independence, that
  is, true acceptance as a sovereign nation by
  Great Britain, the worlds major global power
  with two exceptions (Civil War and 1895), there
  never again was serious threat of Anglo-U.S. war
• U.S. preeminence in West Indies, Caribbean
  Monroe Doctrine of 1823 (explicitly inspired by
  Great Britain)
• Joint U.S.-G.B. responsibility for trans-Isthmian
  canal
• Although the naval issues for which U.S. fought
  were largely unresolved, they would disappear as
  result of new naval technologies (steam) it was
  a truly successful war!

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MEXICAN WAR (1846-1848)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War Attack by Mexican
  troops on Gen. Z. Taylors troops (which were in
  disputed area near Rio Grande River) President
  Polks desire for California, New Mexico, Rio
  Grande boundary as justified by Manifest
  Destiny
• How It Was Fought Amphibious operations (or at
  least landings) in Gulf of Mexico and Pacific
  Coast (Monterey) intense land battles in
  northeast of Mexico Gen. Scotts invasion and
  prolonged occupation of Mexico City
• Alterations During War None of significance.
• Nominal Results at Termination Acquisition of
  Southwest and California
• Unexpected Aftermath of Mexican War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF MEXICAN WAR (1848-1860)

• In conjunction with simultaneous settlement of
  Oregon dispute with Great Britain, rise of U.S.
  in international standing as a major power
• Anglo-U.S. agreement to share building of
  trans-Isthmian canal (1850)
• Stimulation of further territorial expansion, but
  thwarted by issue of slavery (Compromise of 1850)
• Increase of overseas commercial expansion (M.C.
  Perry to Japan in 1850s)

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CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War
• Restore the integrity of the Union
• How It Was Fought by Union
• Four years of unremitting fighting in massed
  battles naval blockade at sea amphibious
  operations along 3,000-mile coastline vigorous
  diplomacy to avoid British intervention
• Alterations During War
• In strategy from Anaconda Plan to
  annihilation
• In goals from reunification to end of slavery
• Nominal Results at Termination
• Reunification and end of slavery
• Unexpected Aftermath of Civil War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OFCIVIL WAR (1865-1890)

• Assassination of President
• Impeachment of President Johnson
• Congressional dominance over executive
• Much harsher Reconstruction
• Six-Year Crisis with Britain over Alabama
  Claims that could have resulted in war!
• Unleashing of bloody wars against Plains Indians
  lasting until 1890
• Creation of a centralized industrialized economy
  stretching from coast to coast via railroad

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SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War Liberate Cuban people
  from yoke of Spanish oppression (Spain had ruled
  Cuba for hundreds of years) revolution dated from
  1860s)
• How It Was Fought Naval blockade and battle off
  Santiago de Cuba Commodore Deweys attack on
  Manila Bay in the Philippines
• Alterations During War
• Strategy to fight for Cuba in Pacific (!)
• Policy acquisition of Pacific empire (Hawaii,
• Wake, Guam, Philippines)
• Nominal Results at Termination New empire,
  including Puerto Rico but not Cuba (only Gitmo)
• Unexpected Aftermath of Spanish-American War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR
(1898-1941)

• Very bloody and savage suppression of Philippine
  Insurrection (until 1903)
• Brief but decisive military intervention in China
  with other great powers during Boxer Rebellion
  (1899)
• Birth of real tension with Japan, which appeared
  to be threatening Philippines and perhaps Hawaii
• Hegemony in Caribbean and West Indies, acquiesced
  to by Great Britain.
• Building of Panama Canal (1904-1914)
• Banana Wars in Cuba, Panama, Dominican
  Republic, Haiti, Nicaragua

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WORLD WAR I (1914-1919)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War (U.S. entry only)
• Retaliation for U-boat attacks on merchant
  marine make world safe for democracy form
  League of Nations freedom of seas
• How It Was Fought American Expeditionary Army
  under Pershing convoys of supply and troop ships
  by U.S.N. and Royal Navy
• Alterations During War Battleships proved
  irrelevant despite Mahans teachings
• Nominal Results at Termination Punitive peace of
  Versailles to be meliorated by League of Nations
• Unexpected Aftermath of World War I

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR I (1919-1939)

• U.S. failed to join its own League and retreated
  into isolationism leaving Europeans to their own
  traditional diplomatic-military devices
• Germany economically prostrate (thus Hitler)
  Soviet Russia outcast (Stalin becomes dominant),
  French insecure (Maginot Line), strong anti-war
  sentiment paralyzes G.B.
• Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) gave
  U.S.N. parity in major combatants (heavy cruisers
  and battleships) for first time in history
• Japan acquired Pacific Islands (Marshalls,
  Marianas, Carolines) as fruits of war, directly
  challenging U.S. route to Philippines

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WORLD WAR II (1939-1945)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War (U.S.) Punish
  aggressors (Japan, Germany) achieve security for
  U.S. in Atlantic and Pacific create United
  Nations
• How It Was Fought Globally with coalition with
  all branches of services with large-scale (not
  total) mobilization
• Alterations During War Unconditional surrender
• Nominal Results at Termination Germany and Japan
  defeated, devastated, occupied
• Unexpected Aftermath of World War II

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF WORLD WAR II (1945-1950)

• Unprecedented U.S. military occupation of Germany
  and Japan and then maintenance of powerful
  military presence for over 50 years.
• Cold War with U.S.S.R.
• Substantial turmoil, instability, civil wars in
  many areas too easily overlooked
• (John Keegan cites Greek civil war lasting until
  1949 and killing 150,000 people. see his
  History tells us that most conflicts end in
  chaos, 01 June 2004 www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/
  main/jhtml)

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KOREAN WAR (1950-1953)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War
• Repel North Korean invasion of South
• Containment of (Soviet) Communist expansion
• How It Was Fought
• Limited war doctrine prevailed
• Alterations During War U.S. extended protection
  to Taiwan and aid to French in Indochina
• Liberation of North and democratic unification
  of all of
• Korea proclaimed briefly in 1950
• Nominal Results at Termination
• South Korea secure Europe (NATO) armed
  Containment firmly established as U.S. policy
• Unexpected Aftermath of Korean War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF KOREAN WAR (1953-1963)

• Temporary boundary (38th parallel) became (thus
  far) a permanent one between two ideologically
  opposed states backed by ideologically opposed
  superpowers
• Large-scale U.S. occupation of South Korea for
  over 50 years
• Nuclearization of the peninsula (by North in last
  two decades)

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VIETNAM WAR (1964-1973)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War Retaliation for Gulf
  of Tonkin attack on Maddox and Turner Joy (1964)
  sustain independent and democratic South Vietnam
  Containment of (Soviet) Communism avoid domino
  effect of states falling in Asia to Communism.
• How It Was Fought Large-scale U.S. military
  intervention, 1965-1968 thereafter by increasing
  air attacks on North Vietnam and Cambodia and
  draw-down of U.S. forces under name of
  Vietnamization
• Alterations During War Continual shifts in
  announced strategy and policy especially by
  President Johnson (1963-1969)
• Nominal Results at Termination Loss of South
  Vietnam to North (1975)
• Unexpected Aftermath of Vietnam War

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UNEXPECTED AFTERMATH OF VIETNAM WAR (1973-Present)

• Lingering animosity between U.S. civilian and
  military elites
• Great reluctance to use military Pres. Carter
  Iranian hostage crisis Pres. Reagan and death of
  241 Marines in Lebanon in Oct. 1983 Gen. Powell,
  on NSC, said using force in Beirut wasnt
  sensible. . . . It was goofy from the beginning.
  (AFP, II, 447)
• Upheaval in U.S. military strategic thinking
  emergence of the Clausewitzian school of thought
  creation of SP course at NWC.

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GULF WAR (1990-1991)

• Proclaimed Reasons for War Expel Iraq from
  Kuwait
• How It Was Fought High-tech naval and air force
  plus large-scale ground operations with
  coalition
• Alterations During War
• Nominal Results at Termination Iraq expelled
  Iraq dictator still in power Iraq army weakened
  but not demolished
• Unexpected Aftermath of Gulf War

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UNEXPECT AFTERMATH OF GULF WAR (1991-Present)

• New world order, BUT
• Saddam lived on
• Question of his having WMD
• Shiite uprising in south and brutal suppression
• U.S. flights in Iraqi No-Fly Zones
• U.N.-sanctioned embargo
• Weapons inspections
• Ultimately, frustration of U.S. and decision to
  eliminate Saddam

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EPILOGUE THE WAR IN IRAQ
Reality is an uncomfortable companion,
particularly to people of good will. George H. W.
Bushs proclamation of a new world order has
persuaded too many in the West that the worlds
future could be managed within a legal framework,
by discussion and conciliation. The warnings
uttered by his son that the United States was
determined to bring other enemies of nuclear and
regional stability to bookIran, North Koreawas
found by his political opponents profoundly
unsettling. The reality of the Iraq campaign on
March-April 2003, however, a better guide to what
needs to be done to secure the safety of our
world than any amount of law-making or
treaty-writing can offer. John Keegan, The Iraq
War (New York Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), p.
219. A GRIM PROGNOSTICATION TO BE MADE TWO DAYS
BEFORE THE 60TH ANNIVERSARY OF D-DAY!!!