Information Structure and Sentence Structure

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Information Structure and Sentence Structure

• ENG 1520
• Richard Xiao
• Lancaster University

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Outline

• Information structure (IS) Theoretical
  backgrounds
• Information-flow principle and principles of
  end-focus and weight
• Manifestations of IS in sentence structures

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What is information structure (IS)?

• Broadly speaking, information structure encodes
  which part of a sentence is more informative in
  relation to a particular context

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Information packaging

• Information structure can be said to package
  linguistic information with the aim of optimizing
  the information transfer in discourse
• It is primarily concerned with how a message is
  sent rather than what the message is about, just
  as the packaging of toothpaste can affect its
  sales but not much of its contents

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Form vs. meaning

• However, while information structure is more
  about FORM (how information is transferred) than
  MEANING (information itself), it plays an
  essential role in several aspects of meaning
• Essential for
• the construction and coherence of a discourse
• the choice of anaphoric elements
• Also necessary for the interpretation of
  sentences with focus-sensitive particles (e.g.
  only, also, too), or adverbs of quantification
  (e.g. always, sometimes)

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Different focuses of only

• Some examples showing different focuses of only
• The focus in each example is marked in blue,
  which would receive a pitch accent in speech
• John only introduced Bill to Sue.
• John only introduced Bill to Sue.
• John only introduced Bill to Sue.
• John only introduced Bill to Sue.

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Linguistic means for IS

• There are a range of linguistic means that can
  encode information structure, e.g.
• Intonation and prosody in speech
• Syntactic structures
• Word order

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Place of IS in grammar

• Information structure is a component of GRAMMAR,
  more specifically of SENTENCE GRAMMAR, i.e. it
  is a determining factor in the formal
  structuring of sentences (Lambrecht 19943)

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Information structure A dichotomy
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Givenness and aboutness relationship

• Q What did John drink?

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Information structure of a sentence

• Typically consists of two parts
• one less informative part that relates the
  sentence to the preceding discourse (given, old,
  presupposed information)
• one more informative part that moves the
  discourse forward
• by adding new information
• or by modifying the old information given or
  presupposed in preceding discourse

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Information-flow principle

• Related to the normal ordering of information in
  English discourse, i.e. moving from given to new
  information
• A question and two possible relies
• Q When will we come back?
• - A) Well come back next week.
• - B) Next week well come back.
• In the two replies, the given information is
  marked in blue and new information is underlined
• Which reply will you choose? Why?
• A) is better than B)
• The given-new order of information can contribute
  to the cohesion of a text, because the given
  information at the beginning links the sentence
  to the previous discourse while the new
  information is usually taken up in the continuing
  discourse
• The given-new order also helps the addressee to
  understand

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Principles of end-focus and end-weight

• End-focus principle
• A clause normally has at least one point of
  focus, which typically falls upon the end of the
  clause
• End-weight principle
• Since new information often needs to be presented
  more fully than the given information (e.g. by
  using a longer, more complex, heavier
  structure), the end-weight principle often works
  hand in hand with the end-focus principle

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End-focus and end-weight principles

• A pair of examples
• A) It may take them a little while, but it is
  important that you contact them to make a housing
  application and let them know of your needs.
• B) It may take them a little while, but that you
  contact them to make a housing application and
  let them know of your needs is important.
• Which sentence is more difficult to process? Why?
• Sentence B) is more difficult
• It is structurally unbalanced, and readers have
  to keep a lot in memory before they reach the end
  of the sentence

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Initial position a second point of focus

• The end-weight principle states that the end of a
  clause is the most important point of focus
• In addition to final position, the beginning of a
  clause is another point of focus
• Brilliant that was!
• (That was absolutely brilliant!)
• To this list it would be very desirable to add
  the status of women and the distribution of
  income, housing and consumer durables.
• The primary focus falls upon the underlined part
  in final position
• To this list" in initial position becomes a
  second focus, which also provides a cohesive link

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Information-flow principle vs. end-focus/weight
principles

• Normally agree with each other
• When the two are in conflict, the
  information-flow principle can overrule the
  end-weight principle
• e.g. That similar relationships occur with these
  two species under field conditions in
  Saskatchewan was suggested by Pickford (1960,
  1966a).
• The that-clause is placed in initial position to
  serve the information-flow principle by giving
  old information, even though this is a heavy
  structure

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Manifestations of IS

• Passive
• Existential there
• Adverbial clause
• Clefting
• Extraposition
• Dislocation
• Fronting
• Inversion

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1) Passives

• One important discourse function of passives is
  to accommodate information structure by
• Presenting information from given to new
• Maintaining the end-focus and end-weight
• Keeping the topic continuous in discourse
• Most commonly, the subject contains given
  information while the agent presents new
  information, which means that in most passive
  sentences, the subject has a higher level of
  givenness than the agent phrase
• About 90 of the agent phrases bring in new
  information (Biber et al 1999)

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Passives

• A two-sentence mini discourse
• Almost all entrants to teaching in maintained and
  special schools in England and Wales complete a
  recognised course of initial teacher training.
• A) Such courses are offered by university
  departments of education as well as by many
  polytechnics and colleges.
• B) University departments of education as well as
  many polytechnics and colleges offer such
  courses.
• Which option will you choose? Why?
• Option A) is better
• In accord with information-flow principle
• In accord with end-focus/weight principles
• Anaphoric use of such in initial position links
  the sentence more closely to the preceding
  discourse

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Passives

• In addition to maintaining information flow,
  passives can also help to keep the topic
  continuous so that the discourse is coherent
• A) The town is a major centre for the timber
  industry and is surrounded by large
  industrial and shipping complexes in the river
  Dvina, stretching away to the White
  Sea about thirty kilometers to the north.
• Topic of 3 clauses is continuous (the town)
• B) The town is a major centre for the timber
  industry and large industrial and shipping
  complexes in the river Dvina surrounded it,
  town stretching away to the White Sea about
  thirty kilometers to the north.
• Topic is discontinuous (the town large
  industrial and shipping complexes the town)

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2) Existential there

• There BE/EXIST notional subject
• Conveying more information than the mere
  existence of something, e.g. by indicating when
  or where it exists
• As the obligatory elements of an existential
  sentence conveys little information, it usually
  has an adverbial or a post-modifier for the
  notional subject
• There were four witnesses to the ceremony at the
  citys Hotel Crillon.

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Existential there

• The notional subject of an existential clause is
  usually an indefinite noun phrase introducing a
  new topic which is taken up in the continuing
  discourse
• There are some apparent contradictions. For
  instance, the republics are encouraged to seek
  membership of the United Nations, although the
  union is to remain responsible for foreign
  relations.
• New topic some apparent contradictions is
  introduced by existential there
• One example of such contradictions (the republics
  vs. the union) is given in the continuing
  discourse

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Existential there

• Existential constructions can help to avoid
  unbalanced sentence structure
• A) There are many people who believe sincerely
  that you can train children for life without
  resorting to punishment.
• B) Many people who believe sincerely that you can
  train children for life without resorting to
  punishment exist.
• Which option do you prefer? Why?
• A) is better than B)
• Sentence balance, end-focus

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3) Adverbial clauses

• The placement of adverbial clauses can help to
  maintain information flow
• If an adverbial clause contains given
  information, it is usually placed in initial
  position to help with cohesion in this case,
  the main clause presents new information
• And if that crisis goes on for years, its hard
  for them to recollect what they were like before.
  
• that crisis in the conditional clause provides
  a cohesive link
• New information is in end focus
• In order to answer this question it is necessary
  to begin to read the charts as a way of
  structuring meaning
• this question in the adverbial of purpose
  provides a cohesive link
• New information is in end focus

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Adverbial clauses

• Conversely, when the main clause gives old
  information, the adverbial clause may appear in
  final position to present new information
• We had them at the hospital , although I
  didnt use them that often .

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4) Clefting

• A cleft sentence breaks information in a sentence
  into two parts in order to provide an extra focus
  to one piece of information
• Two types of clefting
• it-cleft
• wh-cleft

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It-clefts

• Nearly all syntactic roles other than the
  predicate can be brought into focus in it-cleft
  sentences to achieve cohesion and contrast
• The new freedoms go furthest in NHS Trusts and it
  is there that we are seeing some
  of the greatest progress .
• "there" provides a backward link to NHS Trusts,
  and also gives the sentence a primary focus in
  addition to the end focus
• Canonical word order and we are seeing some of
  the greatest progress there. (less powerful)
• Sir, I always thought it was bodies that required
  the seats, not souls .
• The focused element bodies forms a contrast
  with souls
• Canonical word order bodies, not souls,
  required the seats. (less powerful)

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Wh-clefts

• In wh-clefts, the focused elements can be a noun
  phrase, a nominal clause, or an infinitive clause
• What she needed was a solid core of self (noun
  phrase as focused element)
• What he urges is that they should have a better
  knowledge of the past (nominal clause as focused
  element)
• What you must do is tell Irina to keep him in the
  clinic till I can come. (infinitive phrase as
  focused element)
• In sentences like these, the part marked up in
  blue is the primary focus, while the underlined
  wh-clause forms a second focus

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Two special wh-clefts

• Inverted wh-clefts and demonstrative wh-clefts
• In both cases, the focused elements usually
  provide reference to the preceding discourse
• Peace and quiet is what we want.
• peace and quite was discussed in earlier text
• This is what will determine the outcome of the
  election.
• Focused demonstrative pronoun this points
  backwards to the early text
• New information in the wh-clause forms the end
  focus

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5) Extraposition

• Extraposition means moving subject or object
  clauses outside their normal positions
• When this happens, the dummy it is used in
  subject position of the main clause, anticipating
  the extraposed clause as the logical subject
• Extraposition can help with sentence balance to
  serve the end-focus principle
• Four types of extraposition
• Extraposed that-clause
• Extraposed wh-clause
• Extraposed infinitive clause
• Extraposed gerund clause

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Extraposed that-clause

• The dummy it functions as the subject while the
  that-clause is moved to the clause final position
• It is obvious that some Conservative Members are
  living in a dream world. (it BE adj. that)
• Canonical That some Conservative Members are
  living in a dream world is obvious.
• It seems unlikely that this provisional
  arrangement will last. (it SEEM/APPEAR adj.
  that)
• Canonical That this provisional arrangement will
  last seems unlikely.
• It appears that he is afraid of me. (it SEEM or
  APPEAR that)
• Canonical That he is afraid of me appears (to be
  the case).
• Canonical versions sound less natural, because
  they go against the principle of end-weight

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Extraposed wh-clause

• The dummy it functions as the subject while the
  wh-clause is moved to the clause final position
• It is not clear how reliable the measurements of
  heat flux from sonic devices are in cloud.
• Canonical How reliable the measurements of heat
  flux from sonic devices are in cloud is not
  clear.
• For the same reason as for extraposed
  that-clauses, the canonical version sounds less
  natural

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Extraposed infinitive clause

• The dummy it functions as the subject while the
  infinitive clause is moved to the clause final
  position
• It is essential to read the entire book and then
  go back to this area.
• Canonical To read the entire book and then go
  back to this area is essential.
• James found it difficult to accept her
  explanation. (object)
• Canonical ?James found to accept her explanation
  difficult.
• These canonical versions clearly sound less
  natural than their extraposed counterparts
• When the infinitive clause functions as an
  object, the canonical version is even less
  acceptable

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Extraposed gerund clause

• The dummy it functions as the subject while the
  gerund clause is moved to the clause final
  position
• Its very difficult getting supplies into
  Sarajevo.
• Canonical Getting supplies into Sarajevo is very
  difficult.
• They found it fun skiing. (object)
• Canonical They found skiing fun.
• While a lengthy gerund clause can still destroy
  the balance in canonical word order, a short
  gerund clause in canonical form sounds as good as
  the extraposed version

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6) Dislocation

• A construction with a pronoun in the main clause
  and a definite noun phrase before or after the
  main clause, which is used to mark the topic or
  for clarification
• Typically found in conversation or fictional
  dialogue

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Two types of dislocation

• Left-dislocation (preface) marking the topic
• One of the guys I work with, he said he bought
  over 100 in Powerball tickets.
• He - one of the guys I work with topic
• Underlined part focus
• Right-dislocation (noun phrase tag) for
  clarification, sometimes also for the end-focus
  effect of the noun phrase
• Has it got double doors, that shop?
• Noun phrase tag clarifies what the pronoun it
  refers to it also brings the noun phrase that
  shop into focus

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7) Fronting

• Placing in initial position a clause element
  which normally follows the verb
• Used for achieving focus and cohesion as it takes
  advantage of both final and initial points of
  focus
• The fronted element usually refers to given
  information, or forms a contrast

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Examples of fronting

• What they can do, we can do.
• Fronted object provides two points of focus and a
  contrast
• Such at least was his observation.
• Fronted element such provides a cohesive link
  and an end-focus
• Far more serious were the severe head injuries.
• Fronted predicative relates the sentence to
  preceding text through a comparison it also
  activates two points of focus
• Enclosed is a photograph of my late father Bert
  Wakefield on site just after the war.
• Fronted non-finite construction achieves sentence
  balance by presenting the structurally heavy new
  information in final position
• Brave though he is in facing adult audiences,
  the result is a bit of a cringe.
• Underlined part moved before the subordinator
  though is clearly intensified in addition, the
  end-focus falls upon new information

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8) Inversion

• Refers to a reversal of the normal word order so
  that the verb precedes the subject
• Helping with cohesion, information flow,
  intensification and placement of focus

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Examples of inversion

• Next to it stood the engine which ran it,
  and the engineer .
• Full (subject-verb) inversion
• Underlined part in initial position provides old
  information
• Referential it in initial position increases
  cohesion
• Long subject appears at the end of the sentence
• Better than canonical with long subject The
  engine which ran it, and the engineer stood next
  to it.
• On no occasion did the number of protesters reach
  more than a few hundred.
• Partial (subject-operator) inversion
• Force of the negative element is intensified by
  its initial focus
• More powerful than canonical The number of
  protesters did not reach more than a few hundred
  on any occasion.

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Summary

• The information structure of a sentence has two
  parts one for given information and one for new
  information, and old information is normally
  presented before new information
• The end and beginning of a clause are usually
  points of focus, but the structurally complex and
  informationally heavier part is normally
  placed in final position
• Information structure is manifested in a great
  variety of sentence structures in English

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IS analysis exerciseIdentify given and new
information

• The micrometer
• A micrometer is an instrument which is used for
  measuring small distances precisely.
• It can measure with a precision of 0.01 mm.
• A micrometer consists of a steel frame in the
  shape of a semi-circle.
• Attached to one end of this semi-circular frame
  is a small anvil.
• The other end of the frame extends outwards.
• A piece of metal in the shape of a cylinder fits
  on this extension.
• The cylindrical part is called the barrel or
  sleeve.
• Inside the barrel is a screw-thread.

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IS analysis exerciseSample analysis
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Further readings

• Alonso, I. (2003) Improving text flow in ESL
  learner Compositions. The Internet TESL Journal
  9/2. URL http//iteslj.org/Articles/Alonso-Impro
  vingFlow.html
• Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Leech, G. (2002)
  Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written
  English. London Longman.
• Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S.
  and Finegan, E. (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken
  and Written English. London Longman.
• Birner, B. and Ward, G. (1998) Information Status
  and Noncanonical Word Order in English.
  Amsterdam Benjamins.
• Jennifer A., Losongc, A., Wasow, T. and Ginstrom,
  R. (2000) Heaviness vs. Newness The Effects of
  Structural Complexity and Discourse Status on
  Constituent Ordering. Language 76/1 28-55.
• Lambrecht, K. (1994) Information Structure and
  Sentence Form. London CUP
• Nwogu, K. (1995) Structuring scientific
  discourse. English Teaching Forum. 33/4 22-27.
  URL http//exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/n
  o4/p22.htm
• Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik,
  J. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
  Language. London Longman.

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• Thank you!
• If you have any question, please feel free to ask
  or email me z.xiao_at_lancaster.ac.uk
• This PPT is available for download at
  http//www.lancs.ac.uk/postgrad/xiaoz/APR10.zip
• Exercises to follow