Psyc 4020 History of Psychology

1
Psyc 4020History of Psychology

• Bill Potter, Ph.D, BCBA

2

• 1-1 What types of things are psychologists
  focusing on? Be able to list and describe at
  least three. (1)

3

• 1-2 know some of your authors points about
  trying to write a history of any topic. (2-3)
• Present emerges from the past, but is not
  necessarily the "Best"
• History typically focuses on a few individuals
  (but many contributed)
• History is an "unending stream of interrelated
  events"

4

• 1-3 Know what zeitgeist means (3)
• "Zeitgeist"
• The general intellectual, moral and cultural
  climate of an era (Webster)
• Boring I new idea will only be accepted if it
  fits into current "zeitgeist"

5

• 1-4 Know the reasons why one should study the
  history of psychology (3-5)
• 1. Put things into perspective (the study of
  psychology)
• 2. Fosters a greater understanding of current
  trends/approaches
• 3. recognize fads occur (change with the
  "zeitgeist")
• 4. avoid repeating mistakes
• 5. provides some great research ideas
• 6. Satisfy your curiosity
• 7. Course needed to graduate

6

• 1-5 How is science characterized? (6)
• Science has two major aspects
• A. Empirical observation
• (Defined as the direct observation of nature
  capable of being proved/disproved by observation
  or experience)
• B. Development of theory
• (Defined as a summary or concise description of a
  number of empirical descriptions)

7

• 1-6 Know the two main functions of a scientific
  theory (6)
• A theory
• 1. Organizes empirical observations
• 2. directs future research (empirical
  observations)
• (e.g. Einstein's theory of relativity bending of
  light experiment)
• Theory must be testable

8

• 1-7 Know the difference between rationalism and
  empiricism (6)
• Rationalism
• Knowledge is arrived at by mental effort (e.g.
  reasoning, thinking)
• Empiricism
• Knowledge is arrived at by experiencing things
  (interacting with the environment)
• Examples
• A mathematical proof for 112 (rationalism)
• Pavlovs observation of respondent conditioning
  (empiricism)

9

• 1-8 Know how a scientific law is defined, as
  well as the difference between a correlational
  law and a causal law. Be able to generate and
  recognize examples of each (6-7)
• Scientific Law
• "A consistently observed relationship between two
  or more classes of empirical events"
• e.g.
• Classical Conditioning (respondent)
• Crowding and Aggression
• GRE Scores and performance in graduate school
• What should each one be labeled?
• Causal (allows for prediction and control)
• Correlational (allows for prediction only)

10

• 1-9 Be able to define each of these and recognize
  examples or nonexamples of each (12-13)
• Determinism
• belief that events being studied (behavior) are
  caused
• Indeterminism
• "heisenberg principle" - observing changes what
  is observed
• belief that one can never specify actual causes
  of behavior
• Nondeterminism
• belief that most critical causes of behavior are
  self-generated/ego caused/from unconscious. Free
  will determines behavior (and that is
  unpredictable)

11

• 1-10 know the different approaches that Popper
  and Kuhn take in regards to the development of
  science (7-12)
• Popper
• Science is problem-solving -
• 1. find a problem then
• 2. Solve it
• A. Question those solutions.
• A scientific theory must be refutable
• A scientific theory makes "risky" predictions
• Kuhn
• Scientific approach is a "paradigm"
• Scientists engage in "Normal Science" "mopping
  up"
• Anomalies arise, researchers propose alternative
  viewpoint
• revolution occurs, new paradigm in effect.
• Both
• Popper as science should be
• Kuhn, as science is

12

• 1-12 Know some of the approaches taken in terms
  of the Mind/body debate (15-16)
• Materialists matter is all that matters
• Idealist matter doesn't matter/mind creates all
  (monist too!)
• Monist try to explain all in terms of one
  reality
• Dualist mental and physical events exist and
  interact

13
1-12 know each of the following definitions.

14

• 2-1 Know what the Zeitgeist was for the early
  Greek philosophers (26-27)
• Early Greece (5-6th century BC). Explanations
  of how things work mostly related to magic,
  superstitions (the gods!)
• Olympian Religion
• Believed that soul survived but without memories
  of earthly life thus lived life to the fullest.
  Pursed glory, enjoyment. Greek upper class
  embraces Olympian religions
• Dionysiac-Orphic religion embraced by the
  peasants, slave and laborers believed in
  transmigration of the soul (reincarnation until
  the person was good enough to break the cycle).
  

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• 2-2. Know my point about superstition/mysticism
  diverting us from obtaining knowledge
  particularly scientists. (lecture)
• -- limited amount of time in life
• -- time spent chasing nonempirical issues
• -- Claims that causes are supernatural wastes
  time
• Medicine bad spirits, gods being angry cause
  bad health, epilepsy, etc.
• Psychology possessions responsible for
  abnormal behavior.

16

• 2-3. Know the contributions of the various
  cosmologists the first philosophers
  especially in regard to providing natural
  explanations of events, versus supernatural
  explanations. Know why skepticism is essential to
  any science (28-34)
• Thales Focused on natural explanations
• Looked for physis the substance all others were
  said to be composed of! (physicists)
• Predicted eclipses, developed navigation
  techniques, applied geometry.
• Thales speculated and welcomed criticism
• Being skeptical of findings allows scientific
  claims to be challenged and verified. Refereed
  journals means that other scientists review
  submissions and criticize, review the data, etc.

17

• 2-3. continued.
• Parmenenides Rationalist.
• Believed in only one reality, that is fixed and
  only understood via reason (thus rationalist!)
• Used logic to support position
• Zenos Paradox argued that motion is an
  illusion senses are faulty. Logical extreme.
• Later, rationalism and Empiricism were combined
  for the scientific approach

18

• 2-3. continued.
• Pythagoras rationalist (theorem?)
• - believed basic explanation for all universe
  was found in numbers and their relationships.
• - Perfection only found in abstract (beyond
  senses, only detectable by reason)
• - Dualist permanent part abstract, empirical
  part changing only known via senses. Senses
  deceptive!
• -Against eating beans beans cause excessive
  flatulence, a condition contrary to the
  tranquility of mind necessary for seeking the
  truth!

19

• 2-3 continued.
• Democritus
• Last of "cosmologists"
• Suggested that all things were made of tiny parts
  he called "Atoms"
• (Thus a monist!)
• Promoted "Elementism" (explain something in terms
  of component parts)
• Promoted "Reductionism" (can explain things by
  reducing to lowest level)
• Perception are due to atoms emanating from
  objects.

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• 2-3 continued
• Early versions of evolutionary theory
• Anaximander
• Said hot water and earth combined resulted in
  fish
• Fish sheltered human infants until puberty
• Empedocles
• Love and Strife cause of all things
• These created life forms
• Animals formed part by part
• "Here many neckless heads sprang up... naked arms
  strayed about, devoid of shoulders, and eyes
  wandered alone, begging for foreheads (p 33)"
• But, questioned how humans came about!

21

• 2-4. Be able to describe the approach involved in
  early Greek medicine (34-35)
• Early Greek Medicine
• -- linked mental and physical together (e.g.
  senses linked to brain)
• -- performed dissections
• -- Dispelled many superstitions about health/body
• (e.g. epilepsy possession)
• Hippocrates stressed natural causes (considered
  father of medicine)

22

• 2-5. Know what the Sophist believed and what some
  of the more famous sophist proposed (37-39)
• Sophists professional teachers
• believed truth was in the eye of the beholder
  what you can convince someone of, is the truth
• Protagoras
• "Man never steps in the same river once"
• (the river is different for all of us!)
• Xenophanes
• Attacked religion - said a human invention
• (gods acted too human!)
• Humans create truth that exists and religions!

23

• 2-6. Know your authors majors points regarding
  Socrates (39-41)
• Socrates (rationalist)
• Know Thyself
• Disagreed that truth was only personal opinion
• Used inductive definition
• Defined instances of concepts
• Tried to distill commonalties from instances
• (e.g. beauty)
• To know is to identify, know why, know
  commonalties
• Goal of life is to gain knowledge
• Focused on human nature

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• 2-7. Know your authors major points regarding
  Plato (41-44).
• Plato (rationalist)
• Socrates Student
• Influenced by Pythagoreans (somewhat mystical)
• Theory of Forms
• every object has pure form (an idea)
• Understand forms only by rational thought
• All knowledge is innate (nativistic)
• Plato focused on unobservables -- misdirected
  science!

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• 2-8. Know Aristotles contributions (44-51)
• Aristotle
• First university!
• Knowledgeable in many fields
• essences- know by studying nature (empirical)
• Observation provided matter for rationalistic
  thought
• First Physiological psychologist (level of
  analysis!)
• Teleological everything existed for a purpose
  (built in!)
• "Sensory experience was a necessary but not a
  sufficient element in the attainment of
  knowledge" p 45

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• 2-9. continued..
• Aristotle
• Laws of Association basis for contemporary
  learning theory
• law /contiguity think of something recall what
  went with it.
• Law of frequency more times experience something
  easier to recall
• Law of similarity think of something, think of
  similar things.
• Law of Contrast think of something we also think
  of opposites.

27

• 3-1. We will cover various schools of thought in
  this chapter. You should be familiar with each of
  their basic tenets. (Chapter 3)

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• 3-2. I have highlight some of the historical
  figures in this chapter know the ones that I
  specify below.
• Moved away from empiricism and into spiritualism
• Religion dominated politically/economically
• Abelard
• all investigations will lead to God, thus no need
  to avoid empirical observation. Opened door for
  science to emerge.
• Can't understand world by simply manipulating
  words.

29

• 3-2 contiinued
• Aquinas
• Faith and reason not incompatible
• both faith and reason lead to God
• "Ok" to study nature
• (e.g. Aristotle's focus on nature and reason)
• Occam
• "Occam's razor"
• avoid unnecessary assumptions in explanations
• Sensory experience provides ALL knowledge about
  world

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• 4-1. Know the general Zietgeist of the
  Renaissance (89)
• Renaissance "Rebirth"
• 1450-1600
• Switched from God Centered to Human Centered
• Believed individual could change world for the
  better
• Good for scientific progress

31

• 4-2. Be able to list and describe the major
  themes that characterize the Renaissance (89-90).
• Themes
• 1. Individualism potential and achievement
  stressed
• 2. Personal Religion (still Christian though)
• 3. Intense interest in history - especially of
  Greek and Romans (philosophers, poets,
  politicians)
• 4. Anti-Aristotelianism After all Aristotle was
  only human!

32

• 4-3. Be able to describe/recognize the
  contributions of each of the following people
  (90-93).
• Francesco Petrarch
• Attacked scholasticism (combination of Aristotle
  and Christian Theology)
• Classics should stand on their own (not be
  interpreted!)
• Said God wanted humans to use potential

33

• 4-3 (continued)
• Giovanni Pico
• Humans between angels (hierarchy) and animals/
  but only humans changeable
• Choose to live how we like (rational or sensual)
• Claimed all Phil. viewpoints have commonalties
  (should be objectively studied)

34

• 4-3 (continued)
• Desiderius Erasmus
• Opposed to any fanatical belief
• Eclectic and Practical
• Attacked the church and superstitions of the
  time.
• Laid the egg that Luther hatched.

35

• 4-3 (continued)
• Martin Luther
• Reformation said to begin with his 95 theses
• Esp. opposed to indulgences Aristotle
• Believed in Individual Religion
• Father of Protestantism

36

• 4-4. Know some of the events/people that
  challenged the churches authority (93-94)
• Further challenges to Church Authority
• direct observation of nature advocated
• Caused by
• -- Aquinas's - studying nature leads to God
• -- Marco Polo's explorations
• -- Printing Press
• -- Discovery of America
• -- Circling the globe
• -- Works of Astronomer-physicists

37

• 4-5. Know the contributions of the
  astronomer-physicists (94-102)
• Ptolemy
• History of math/astronomy
• proposed orbits of sun/moon about the earth
• fit nicely with empirical (hmmmm) observations
  and Church dogma (i.e. earth center of universe)
• allowed astronomical predictions

38

• 4-5 continued.
• Copernicus
• Opposed earth centered universe (asked to be
  published after his death!)
• Questioned humans role in universe
• (Bruno suggested other life forms in the universe
  - burned at the stake!)
• Copernicus offered more parsimonius account (not
  more acurate - Occam!)
• (paradigm shift? Violent resistance)

39

• 4-5 continued.
• Kepler
• Provided the mathematical/empirical evidence for
  Copernican system (was an astrologer/sun
  "worshipper")
• Insisted all mathematical deductions be supported
  by empirical observations!
• (did lots of empirical observation resulting in
  useful info (predicting planet paths, vision)

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• 4-5. continued..
• Galileo - At 25 was university professor of
  mathematics!
• Mechanist universe was a machine to be
  understood by mathematics
• Accepted Copernican system
• Made telescope (critical!)
• Believed in experimentation coupled with
  mathematical deduction
• (Discover law then use mathematics to find all
  derivations of it)
• Platonic beliefs (e.g. laws the forms)
• Distinguished between Objective and subjective
  reality
• Objective Primary qualities (What really is )
• Subjective (secondary qualities)
• What we sense - irrelevant
• Believed human emotions/consciousness/experiences
  inferior to real world
• Excluded much of psychology from scientific study
  
• that is, human experience is second t real world

41

• 4-5 continued.
• Newton
• Universe a complex machine (lawful)
• Established paradigm in effect until Einstein
• Espoused
• Observation, math. deduction, experiments
• God set universe in motion then stepped back
• Law of gravitation
• (evidence supported claims and gained support as
  with all science)

42

• 4-5. continued.
• Newton's principles
• 1. God created, doesn't intervene
• 2. Material world operates according to natural
  laws (no exceptions to this!)
• 3. No place for purpose in natural law
  (entelechy!) (no innate qualities which cause
  actions,
• 4. accept Occam's razor
• 5. Natural laws are absolute, understanding them
  incomplete (humans imperfect not natural laws)
• 6. To classify is not to explain - need to know
  nature of forces acting on object as well as its
  properties - e.g. Tied to 3, no purpose should
  be attributed to an object.

43

• 4-5 continued.
• Bacon
• Radical Empiricist - only understand nature by
  observing it directly - Look in the horse's
  mouth!
• Believed in induction (vs. deduction)
• No theories, no deductions (later Skinner said
  the same)
• Said theories may bias observations
• (distrusted rationalism, mathematics)
• Led to positivism
• (Only that which is experienced should be
  investigated)
• Science should be practical (lead to an improved
  world)
• Must uncover causal relationships

44

• 4-5 continued.
• Descartes
• Lie in bed thinking invented Cartesian
  Coordinate System - analytic Geometry
• Ultimate Knowledge is mathematical
• Some Knowledge innate -nativist
• Sensory experience must be rationally examined
  before accepted (rationalist)
• Phenomenologist studied whole conscious
  experience
• Mechanistic!
• Intuition/then deduction said pure subjective
  experiences Ok to study
• (know clear and distinct idea then deduce from it)

45

• 4-5 continued. Descartes
• Cogito, ergo sum
• Human nonhuman action reflex
• (study nonhumans useful then)
• Dualist - humans have mind body - pineal gland
  was the link (according to Descartes)

46
René Descartes Discourse on Method (1637)

• Part 1
• Good sense is the most evenly distributed thing
  in the world, for all people suppose themselves
  so well provided with it that even those who are
  the most difficult to satisfy in every other
  respect never seem to desire more than they have.
  It is not likely that everyone is mistaken
  rather this attitude reveals that the ability to
  judge and distinguish the true from the false,
  which is properly what one calls good sense or
  reason, is in fact naturally equally distributed
  among all people. Thus the diversity of our
  opinions does not result from some of us being
  more reasonable than others, but solely from the
  fact that we conduct our thoughts along different
  paths, and consider different things. . .

47

• 5-1. In this chapter, the following are explored
• -- how knowledge is acquired empirically or
  rationally, learned or innate
• -- different ideas on how we know about the world
  via senses, or via rationality (or even via
  faith)
• -- most of the chapter leans towards learning via
  empirical observations.

48

• 5-2. Be able to describe what is meant by
  empiricism, and provide examples of empirical
  issues (117)
• Empiricism
• Sensory Experience is central to gaining
  knowledge
• Knowledge would not exist without experience
• Examples

49

• 5-3. For each of the following people, be able to
  recall their main contributions (118-147)
• Thomas Hobbs
• Universe consisted of matter Motion (Both could
  be used to explain all!)
• Mechanistic
• Deductionist (Find general principle and
  extrapolate)
• Fear of death motivation for social order
• (humans selfish and left to self will kill etc.
  need societal protection believed in monarchy!)
• Suggested church be subservient to State
• Ideas are from experience, not innate

50

• 5-3. Hobbes continued.
• Materialist (all things consist of matter
  motion and that is all that matters!)
• Physical monist (no mind exists! said mind was
  physical and subject to physical laws)
• explained psychological phenomenon in terms of
  physical
• Attention (Sense organ only response one thing at
  a time - motion retained)
• Imagination (decaying sensory experiences)
• Memory (long delayed sense impression)
• Dreams (sleeping imagination - Intense as no
  sensory competition!)
• Motivation (appetite and aversion motivate
  humans)
• No Free will deliberations (interactions with
  environment while experiencing attractions and
  aversions)

51

• 5-3 continued.
• Locke
• (took 3 times to become doctorate of medicine)
• (Friends with Boyle, Newton)
• Dualist mind body (but did not answer how
  sensory stimulation causes ideas - just accepted
  it said, reflect on ideas in the mind and get new
  ones)
• Tabula Rasa blank slate, but
• (no knowledge innate - gain all by experience
  but had innate faculties see next slide!)
• Idea sensation/reflection
• ( Notice more and more folks trying to describe
  psychological phenom - either current stimulation
  or past ones - reflection)

52

• 5-3 Continued. Locke continued
• Operations of mind innate
• perception thinking doubting believing
• reasoning knowing willing
• Complex ideas are composed of simpler ideas
  (complexity emerges from simplicity)
• Emotions composed of pleasure pain
  (complexity/other emotions emerge from combos of
  pleasure/pain)
• Primary Qualities experience what occurs in real
  world (e.g. solid, shapes, etc)
• Secondary qualities experience does not
  correspond to physical world
• (e.g. taste, temperature, sound, color - can't
  touch it! hand in water one hot, one cold, both
  go into warm- paradox of basins)

53

• 5-3. continued.
• Berkeley
• Felt materialism was pushing God out of the
  picture
• Said matter does not exist all things come into
  existence when perceived - everything is
  perception - only secondary qualities exists)
• reality God's perception God's mind what we
  perceive/God's ideas laws of nature are gods
  ideas)
• Perceptions paired knowledge of objects
• (e.g. hard touch, with visual of chair with taste
  of chair.. (or applered/sweet/juicy)
• believed complex perceptions were due to
  combinations of simpler processes
• (complexity emerges.... )

54

• 5-3. Continued..
• Hume
• Need a science of Man (Human)
• (as all important matters rely on human
  perception/ rationality)
• Science should be based on
• experience, observation, and experiments
• Empiricist (how experiences are related to each
  other, and how experiences are related to
  behavior. He concentrated on cognitive events)
• Simple ideas no component parts
• Complex component parts (can be broken down
  into subparts)
• Causation
• a consistently observed relation between events
• great influence on development of science of
  psychology
• All sciences rely on humans, thus must understand
  humans first!

55

• 5-4. Be able to describe what French
  Sensationalism (147)
• French Sensationalism
• mechanists
• Reducing mental activity to basic components
• Opposed rationalists/esp. innate ideas
• Some Stressed Sensation in explaining
  consciousness (really empiricist, author used
  this for convenience, sens. focused a bit more on
  sens. versus experience)

56

• 5-5. For the following French sensationalists, be
  able to list and describe the contributions they
  made. (147-152).
• Gassendi
• Only physical can influence and influence things
• (opposed Decartes)
• "I move therefore I am"
• Humans are composed of matter and can be studied
  this way

57

• 5-5. Continued.
• Mettrie
• (born on Xmas day! physician died from
  indigestion after meal of pheasant and truffles
• Humans and nonhumans differ only in degree
• Mechanistic (humans and nonhumans on a
  continuum)

58

• 5-5. Continued.
• Helveticus
• radical environmentalism
• Perfect education makes perfect humans
• Some commonalities with modern behaviorists he
  was a hedonist in terms of how learning occurred
  did what was pleasurable, avoided what was
  painful

59

• 5-6. Know what positivism is, and the different
  approaches of comte and mach. (152-156)
• Positivism science should only study that which
  is directly experienced
• Comte
• Only be sure of observables
• Hostile to Theology/metaphysics
• Science as religion

60

• 5-6. continued
• Ernst Mach (another type of positivism)
• Psychology should study immediate sensations of
  perceiver
• (versus comte who said only observables should be
  studied, only natural events)

61

• 6 Overview of this chapter
• Examines how the mind works (rationalism) to make
  sense of the world, the role it plays and the
  abilities (faculties) it brings to accomplish
  this.

62

• 6-1 Define Rationalism and Empiricism, and be
  able to describe the role of active and passive
  mind in each. (163)
• Passive mind (tended to be empiricist)
• Mind is automatic/receives acts on info in
  mechanical way
• Induction
• Active mind (tended to be rationist)
• mind acts on sensory information and gives it
  meaning
• Rationalist
• Mind has ability to analyze thoughts
• Deduction

63

• 6-2 Know the contributions of the rationalists
  (164-181)
• Spinoza
• Mind and Psychic Determinism
• mind is Subject to natural law
• Processes of mind are determined, can be
  investigated
• Passions should be controlled by rational mind
• God is nature
• and nature is lawful, god is everywhere

64

• 6-2 continued
• Von Leibniz
• (differential integral calculus - at same time
  as Newton)
• experience causes innate ideas to be actualized
  (understood, revealed, etc).
• Life organized in hierarchy according to clarity
  of thought
• (everything is alive/humans then up to god in
  clarity)
• Proposed un(sub)conscious mind (limen)

65

• 6-2 continued
• Reid
• Reasoning is innate
• (stomach digests, mind reasons!)
• Faculty Psychologist
• (discussed faculties of the mind/or specified
  them abstraction, attention, memory, etc.)
• Faculties always innate

66

• 6-2 Continued
• Kant
• Categories of thought
• experiences is modified by these categories
• quantity, quality, negation, possible-impossible
• We experience the interaction of sensory
  experience modified/structured by the categories
  (faculties) of thought

67

• 6-2 Continued
• Herbart
• Apperceptive Mass - Similar ideas group together
  in mind
• Only ideas compatible with the AM will be allowed
  to enter conscious thought.
• Limen border of conscious and unconscious
• repression ideas incompatile with apperceptive
  mass stashed in unconscious)

68

• 6-2 Continued
• Hegel
• The absolute the totality of the universe. All
  knowledge (equated with God as well)
• The whole is more important than studying the
  parts they must always be related to the whole
  (not taken by themselves)
• Humans move toward the absolute via the dialectic
  process
• Thesis a proposal
• Antithesis a counter proposal
• Synthesis finding middle ground between the
  two proposals (e.g. nature vs. nurture)

69

• 7-1. Romanticism and Existentialism refer to
  schools of thought that were backlashes against
  the rationalists and empiricists and science in
  general. They emphasized the subjective aspects
  of humans more, free will, etc.

70

• 7-2. Be able to define romanticism
• Romanticism
• Emotions/impulses valued more than
  rationalizations
• (first impulse of the heart is always right)
• Study Whole person, not just rational powers or
  empirical determined ideas

71

• 7-3. For each of the people described in this
  chapter, know their contributions. (190-
• Rousseau
• Father of modern Romanticism
• Man is born free and yet everywhere
• we see him in chains
• Noble Savage - human without societys influence
• by nature humans are social animals, wishing to
  live in harmony- society instills greed/nastiness

72

• 7-3 continued.
• Goethe
• (poet, dramatist, scientist, philo 1749-1832
  Faust)
• Showed sensory experience could be
• studied by introspection
• Should study whole, intact experience
• (phenomenology)
• influenced Freud Jung (struggle of animal
  impulses and civilized behavior)

73

• 7-3 continued.
• Schopenhauer
• (1788-1860 philo, scheduled lecture across from
  hegel, but was unsuccessful!)
• Fundamental human impulse is the will to survive
  (thus eat when hungry, drink, sex, etc.) Accounts
  for most human behavior/thus irrational
• (not rationalism or empiricism/can look at life
  as a postponement of death! People cling to life
  not because they like it, but cuz they fear
  death!)
• Humans can rise above irrational impulses(poetry,
  music, art, asceticism)

74

• 7-3. Continued
• Nietzche
• Superman/rise above human condition
• (higher man, mastery over self and destiny,
  using will)
• God is dead (philosophers and scientists of the
  day had killed him similar to Xenophanes, god
  a human invention)
• rational and emotional combine
• (come to combine these two using the will, making
  for a superior person - versus the repression
  suggested by Schopenhauer)

75

• 7-4. Be able to describe the school of thought
  described called existentialism (198)
• Existentialism
• Humans have choice/decisions determine destiny
• personal experience/feeling should guide behavior
  (similar to the Romantics)

76

• 7-5. Know the various people involved in
  promoting existentialism. (198-207)
• Kierkegaard (1813-1855 a hunchback!)
• Religions too rational/mechanical (he was
  Christian, but personal religion recall, a theme
  of humanism)
• Truth is subjective
• (it is what a person believes/ sophists truth is
  in the eye of the beholder!))
• Science too rational/mechanical
• (religion according to Kierkegaard is like a love
  affair with God, deeply personal/emotional)
• (kierkegaard and Nietzche both focused on direct
  personal experience/targeted hegel/ but Kier
  accepted God, Nietzche said he did not exist)

77

• 7-5. Continued.
• Nietzche
• Superman/rise above human condition(higher man,
  mastery over self and destiny, using will)
• God is dead (philosophers and scientists of the
  day had killed him similar to Xenophanes, god
  a human invention)
• rational and emotional combine (come to combine
  these two using the will, making for a superior
  person - versus the repression suggested by
  Schopenhauer)

78

• 8-1. This chapter primarily deals with the start
  of more objective look at psychological
  phenomenon, including physiological approaches.

79

• 8-2 Know the importance of individual
  differences in the early development of
  physiology. (211)
• Individual differences cause for concern for
  observing sciences observations!
• (Bessel fired assistant due to observing errors!)
• All sciences rely on observation
• Thus how physical stimulation converted into
  conscious experience became focus of
  investigations
• (Issues of inter-observer agreements
  etc./automation)

80

• 8-3 Be able to describe the Bell-Magendie law
  and the important divisions this law created
  (sensory and motor functions of nerves). Of what
  import was this to the establishment of the brain
  as being important to psychology? (212-213)
• Bell-Magendie law (based on research with
  rabbits)
• Put nerves into two categories
• sensory motor components
• Provided empirical evidence
• Nerves went to and from the brain!
• (Thus focus came to bear on the brain)(afferent -
  to - and efferent from - brain)
• (nerves no longer thought of as general pipes or
  conveyors. Brain was involved!)

81

• 8-4 Know the contributions of following
  physiologists (213-220) (226-231)
• Muller
• "The nature of the central nervous system, not
  the nature of the physical stimulus, determines
  our sensations"
• (what we sense is directly related to the
  physiology of our bodies).
• CNS what transforms physical world
• Transformed according to innate categories (Kant-
  Categories of thought modified experience)

82

• 8-4 continued
• Helmholtz
• Antivitalist as vitalism was not researchable
• Helmholtz life is physical and chemical
  processes
• Apply science to everything!
• (vitalism stated beh. caused by internal
  vitalism)
• (Antivitalists said it was external stimulation
  mostly)
• --led to more scientific study behaviorism
• Principle of the conservation of energy
• (food and oxygen accounted for total energy an
  organism expended)
• energy is never created or lost, just transformed
  - now we're talking science!)
• Brought physics, chemistry and physio closer!

83

• 8-4 continued
• Helmholtz
• Speed of nerve conduction
• frogs and humans!
• (disproved vitalism! approx. (frogs 90) 165-330
  feet sec too slow!)
• (stimulated frog's leg humans stimulated leg and
  asked them to push a button - a bit more
  complicated, not mechanical mental
  processes/learning involved)
• Willed behavior was not instantaneous
• (contrary to popular belief- vitalism)

84

• 8-4 continued
• Helmholtz
• Theory of perception
• Sensations the most basic (raw) mental
  experience caused by environmental stimulation
• Perceptions sensations given meaning by past
  experiences
• Unconscious inference process by which past
  experience transforms
• sensations into perception
• (examples glasses shifted things to the right
  inverted glasses blind that later see - must
  learn to perceive)

85

• 8-4 continued
• Helmholtz
• Young-Helmholtz theory of color vision
• Based on findings that red, green, blue-violet
  could be combined to produce all other colors
• Three color receptors which are stimulated to
  different degrees
• Auditory perception
• Noticed various length fibers in inner ear
• proposed that they responded to different
  frequencies
• Theory of signs
• Mind was active in creating a view of the world
• (given incomplete view supplied by the senses,
  the mind completed the picture)
• By explaining how senses work in a mechanical
  manner, added support to viewing humans as
  mechanisms!

86

• Phrenology belief that studying bumps on head
  provided info on various mental faculties

87

• 8-5/ Be able to define phrenology, provide the
  reasons why it was popular, and how it influenced
  psychology. In addition know its major
  contributors (223-225)
• Popular as
• A. Provided method for objective psychology
• B. Provided practical Info
• Influenced psychology
• A. Brought mind and brain closer together
• B. Fostered closer analysis of brain
• C. Showed that practical info was important
• Gall came up with phrenology
• Spurzheim promoted phrenology.

88

• 8-6 Various other researchers provided evidence
  for and against phrenology, know their
  contributions (226-228)
• Flourens
• Famous for ablation
• found some localization of brain function (for
  phrenology)
• However, Hemispheres acted as single unit as
  other parts of the brain would take over lost
  functions 9against phrenology)

89

• 8-6 continued
• Broca
• Broca's area
• Found behavioral disorder then checked brain for
  damage
• (language disorder man could not talk thorough
  exam, then died - found brain lesion)

90

• 8-7. Weber Fechner contributed much to the rise
  of experimental psychology. Know their
  contributions (228-229)
• Weber
• Two point threshold Distance in which 2 points
  on the skin feel as one or two.
• JND (Just noticeable difference) Found
  discrimination of different weights was relative
  to the weight values 1/40 (lifted wts 1/30 for
  nonlifted)
• First quantitative law in psych!

91

• 8-7 continued
• Fechner
• Psychophysics
• study of relationship between physical and
  psychological events
• (Reported changes in sensation as physical
  stimulus was systematically changed)
• Method of limits
• Two stimuli are presented one changes other
  doesn't
• participant is required to determine if the one
  changed is the same as the constant one
• (also called the method of jnd)

92

• 8-7 continued
• Fechner
• Method of constant stimuli
• Two stimuli are presented one changes other
  doesn't
• participant is required to report if changed one
  is or to constant
• Method of adjustment
• Participant adjusts a variable stimulus until
  they perceive it as matching a standard

93

• 9-1. In this chapter experimental psychology was
  rising certain researchers were using more
  empirical methods to examine thought and other
  human

94

• 9-2. Be able to describe the various
  contributions that these early researchers made
  to the experimental approach to psychology. Also,
  be able to identify which researchers started
  which schools of thought (241-264)
• Wundt
• (tried to understand consciousness and mental
  laws governing it - applied scientific techniques
  to psych. problems)
• Said experimentation could be used to understand
  basic processes of the mind, but could not be
  used to study higher mental processes.
• Believed Complexity emerges from simpler
  processes.

95

• 9-2. Continued (wundt)
• Central concept
• The will was a critical feature of psychological
  phenomenon
• Will humans ability to direct attention
• This "direction" has a purpose voluntarism (the
  name of the school the first in psychology!)

96

• 9-2. Continued - Wundt
• Mediate(d) experience
• Secondhand experience (obtained via measurement
  devices)
• Immediate experience
• Firsthand experience (obtained as it occurs)
• (psychology studies immediate, others tend to be
  mediate - physics etc.)

97

• 9-2. Continued
• Two major goals of experimental psych
• Discover the basic elements of thought
• Discover how these elements combine into complex
  mental experiences (but the second ins not able
  to be studied using experimentation according to
  Wundt)

98

• 9-2. Continued - Wundt
• Introspection
• Used to determine if a specific sensation occurs
• (under tight control, e.g. manipulate some
  stimulus - self - observation maybe a better term)

99

• 9-2. Continued
• Wundt
• Sensation
• raw sensation (upon stimulation)
• Modality sense mode! (visual, auditory, tactile,
  olfactory, taste, temperature, vestibular,
  kinesthetic, pain)
• Qualities
• Within each modality
• (can be broken down to qualities, eg. hue,
  brightness etc)

100

• 9-2. Continued - Wundt
• Perception (passive process)
• Function of
• stimulation
• Physiology
• experiences
• creates a field of perception
• Apperception (active process)
• The part of the perceptual field attended to
• Creative Synthesis
• Apperceptions can be rearranged by the will and
  produce situations never experienced before

101

• 9-2. Continued Wundt
• Psychological vs. Physical causation
• Physical can be predicted by antecedent condition
• Psychological is a function of the will
• Determinist mental laws determine volitional
  acts
• Principle of creative resultants all psychical
  combinations are more than the product of
  separate components new combinations
• Principle of heterogeny of ends goal directed
  activity seldom gets goal only , something
  unexpected happens and motivational pattern
  changes. (makes prediction impossible according
  to Wundt)
• Principle of contrast opposite experiences
  intensify one another
• Principle of the development of opposites after
  experiencing something for a prolonged period of
  time yearn for the opposite!

102

• 9-2 continued.
• Titchener - structuralism
• Science seeks pure knowledge (science deals with
  facts, not values/no good, bad, useful, useless)
• Consciousness
• Total mental experience at a particular moment
• Mind
• accumulated experiences of a lifetime (these were
  his definitions)
• Founded structuralism
• Tried to describe the structure of the mind
• (in terms of observable cognitive processes -
  periodic table of the mental elements)

103

• 9-2 continued. Titchener (continued)
• Three major goals for Experimental Psych
• 1. Discover the elements of thought
• 2. Discover the laws by which complex mental
  experiences emerge from those simple elements
  (Complexity from simplicity)
• 3.Determine the neurophysiological correlates of
  mental experience
• (ultimately it all comes down to physio)

104

• 9-2 continued.
• Titchener on Introspection
• Asked participants to report "raw" experiences
• Tried to get at basic elements of thought
• Shown an apple p's would report hues, shape, etc
• They should avoid at all costs naming or any kind
  of meaning attached to some stimulus presentation

105

• 9-2 continued.
• The decline of structuralism.
• Titcheners death
• Introspection found to be faulty
• Study of nonhumans was seen by structuralists as
  useless (other disciplines were using them)
• Did not study abnormal behavior
• Ignored areas of personality, learning,
  psychological development, and individual
  differences.
• Did not seek practical knowledge.
• Did not assimilate evolution

106

• 9-2 continued.
• Brentano Act Psychology
• Focused on mental processes/these aimed at
  performing some function
• (e.g. judging, recalling, expecting, hoping,
  hating, loving)
• Each mental act "referred" to some object
• (e.g. seeing "Red" is a mental act the thing
  that is seen is redness)
• Phenomenological introspection
• Examining intact meaningful experiences

107

• 9-2 continued.
• Vaihinger
• Humans invent meaning living in society
  requires that humans give meaning to sensations,
  and do so by creating terms concepts, and
  theories and acting as if they were true.
• Humans create fictions that allow them to
  functions effectively in the world (fictions is
  not derogatory in Vaihingers eyes)

108

• 9-2 continued.
• Ebbinghaus
• Systematically studied memory and learning
• Used self as participant (used series of
  syllables that were nonsensical)
• Looked at a "word" for fraction of a second
• paused for 15" then did it again. continued until
  mastery (Looked at long term retention and
  relearning/"savings")
• Found overlearning slowed loss down
• looked at meaningfulness on retention

109

• 10. In this chapter evolutionary theory is
  explored the basic tenets as well as the
  ramifications that it has had on psychology.

110

• 10-1. Know the early perspectives on evolutionary
  theory. (269)
• Evolutionary Theory
• Greeks proposed that life forms came from
  sea/slime and mud life started
• Plato and Aristotle stopped investigations in
  this area - did not believe believed forms and
  species were fixed.

111

• 10-2. For each of the people that influenced the
  development of evolutionary theory, be able to
  list, describe and recognize their contributions.
  (269-277)
• Lamarck
• inheritance of acquired characteristics
• Believed organism changed in its lifetime
• These changes were passed along to offspring
• These changes enhanced likelihood of survival
• Those that survived reproduced, others did not

112

• 10-2. Continued
• Spencer
• Everything in universe started undifferentiated -
  Through evolution systems become differentiated
• (coined the term "Survival of the fittest" Darwin
  borrowed it!)
• (applied evolution to everything! First
  Lamarck's, then Darwin's)
• Physiological
• Nervous system became more complex
• Behavioral
• Behaviors followed by success persisted
• (selectionist! Spencer-bain principle beh. is
  increased if followed by pleasurable
  experience/decreased by painful event)
• Cultural
• Social Darwinism - survival of the fittest in
  society/laissez-faire government hands off as
  perfection will emerge from competition and
  survival(big industrialists, etc)
• Believed that evolution had a purpose perfection
• (not so with Darwin)

113

• 10-2. Continued Darwin
• Darwin Theory of evolution
• 1. Organism's give birth to many offspring
• 2. Those organisms have differences/some
  advantageous/others not
• 3. Organisms which survive reproduce and some
  traits continue
• 4. Eons and eons pass by and traits become
  prevalent
• No purpose involved, it just happens!

114

• 10-2. Continued Darwin.
• Darwin (continued)
• Humans and nonhumans differ only in degree
• (as la Mettrie said, french sensationalist)
• Opened the door for study of nonhumans in many
  ways
• (physio/behavioral/comparative)

115

• 10-2. Continued Darwin
• Darwin's impact on psychology
• promoted functional approaches adaptiveness
• (of thoughts and behavior)
• Focus on individual differences
• Advocated the study of nonhuman behavior

116

• 10-2. Continued
• Galton (Darwin's cousin)
• Measured many things
• (e.g. weather/fingerprints/effectiveness of
  prayer/country with most beautiful women/degree
  of boredom at scientific lectures) but.
• especially intelligence
• Assumed intelligence was a function of sensory
  acuity
• (as human knows world only through the senses!)
• Intelligence was inherited
• (as sensory acuity was a function of natural
  endowment)
• Studied offspring of successful people
• (found they were more intelligent)

117

• 10-2. Continued . Galton
• Eugenics
• Proposed selective breeding
• (mate bright people and discourage for non
  bright)
• Thus Galton advocated NATURE vs. NURTURE
• (Candolle said environment was responsible!)
• used various measurement techniques/word
  association revealed aspects of the mind/mental
  imagery extent to which can do
  this/anthropometry measure all aspects of human,
  including sensory acuity a lab for hire!
• The start of the mental testing movement!
• Defined correlation
• the extent to which two variables tend to go
  together

118

• 10-3. Know what intelligence testing involved and
  who the proponents were (281-303)
• Cattell
• Found little correlation between sensory acuity
  and academic performance
• Binet
• Studied complex mental operations directly
• Tested to determine deficits which could be
  remediated
• Mental orthopedics (mental exercises to increase
  mental abilities)

119

• 10-3. Continued .
• Spearman
• Proposed general intelligence, which was
  inherited
• Goddard
• Brought Binet's tests to the US
• Advocated sterilization
• Used mental testing for immigration purposes

120

• 10-3. Continued .
• Terman
• Revised Binets tests making it more compatible
  with US Culture
• Terman believed that intelligence was inherited
• Conducted longitudinal study finding gifted
  children became gifted adults!
• Hollingworth
• Discredited claims that women were intellectually
  impaired during menstruation
• Promoted educational strategies for gifted
  children
• Clarified distinctions between social/personality
  disorders and low intelligence

121

• 10-3. Continued .
• Yerkes
• Used IQ testing to determine recruits into the
  army (largely ineffective)

122

• 11-1. Functionalism this chapter provides an
  overview of a new approach in psychology that
  of focusing on functions, versus structures (a
  descriptive analysis)

123

• 11-2. be able to list and describe the stages
  that US psychology went through (to present)
  (307-309)
• Stage 1 Moral and mental psychology (1640-1776)
• matters of the soul - religion and psychology
  combined
• (e.g. more philosophical)
• Stage 2 Intellectual Philosophy (1776-1886)
• More focus on perception, memory, imagination,
  thinking, etc.
• Using introspection/nonempirical
• (strong influence of Scottish philosophers)
• Stage 3 U.S. Renaissance (1886-1896)
• Psychology became empirical science
• Emphasis on
• individual difference/adaptation/practically
• (Dewey, James, Titchener)
• Stage 4 Functionalism (1896-present)
• Started with James Dewey
• Role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to
  environment

124

• 11-3. Know the characteristics of functional
  psychology as you author describes them (309)
• Characteristics of Functional psychology
• 1. Focused on the function of the mind. (function
  is to allow for adaptation to the environment)
• 2. Psychology should be practical/aid in
  improving humanity (education, industry, personal
  life)
• 3. Strongly influences by Darwin (biology
  influence vs. philosophy) and James
• 4. Promoted research on nonhumans, children and
  abnormal humans
• 5. Concerned with motivation (as function was an
  issue - needs will influence beh. as organism
  adapts to its environment both mental processes
  and behavior were legitimate focus of study
  introspection was also used)

125

• 11-4. Be able to list and describe the various
  contributors to the functional approach.
• William James (Brother of Henry James!)
• Promoted pragmatism usefulness is best for
  determining worthiness of an idea (if idea works,
  then use it - versus subjective approaches)
• Incorporated evolutionary theory into psychology
• Wrote the Principles of Psychology, big impact
  on psychology
• Opposed Wundts focus on elements (structure) of
  mind
• Believed in a stream of consciousness
• An interrelated stream of thoughts/purposive -
  adaptive/functional! (not able to break mind down
  to elements)

126

• 11-4. Continued . James
• Believed much of behavior was controlled by
  instinct (Human Nonhuman)
• But instinct was modifiable (by experience)
• Called Habits (formed as activities are
  repeated - become more entrenched/neural
  pathways!)
• Maxims for good habits
• 1. Put yourself in environments which promote
  good habits discourage bad ones
• 2. Force yourself to act in beneficial ways (as
  you will establish this habit)
• Operationalized self-esteem
• Success Things achieved
• Pretension Things attempted

127

• 11-4. Continued . William James
• On emotions
• What we feel depends on what we do act the way
  you want to feel!
• (What we feel depends on how a particular
  situation makes us act!)
• Emotions are not mediators
• (See Lion James version See, run, feel scared)

128

• 11-4. Continued .
• Munsterberg
• (studied with Wundt, but did not follow him!
  Disagreed with introspection - James handpicked
  him to run his lab at Harvard)
• Strong focus on applications of psychology
• Clinical Psychology
• Forensic Psychology
• Examined eyewitness testimony
• (found it to be unreliable - he would stage
  traumatic events in classroom to determine if
  reports were accurate)
• (suggested the first precursor to the lie
  detector)
• Industrial Psychology
• Personnel Selection
• Improved performance
• Advertising

129

• 11-4. Continued .
• Granville Stanley Hall
• (First PhD in psych from Harvard, first president
  of Clark University - taught Cattell, Dewey)
• Recapitulation Theory
• Believed every human repeats all stages of
  evolution of the human race
• (from single cell to a variety of mammalian
  capabilities to human)
• If primitive impulses were not released in
  childhood they would carry them into adulthood
• Focused on educational psychology
• Started child development movement

130

• 11-4. Continued .

Romanes's 1892 copy of Ernst Haeckel's allegedly
fraudulent embryo drawings (this version of the
figure is often attributed incorrect