Deep Lexical Semantics or Commonsense Knowledge and Lexical Semantics 3. Cognition and the Cognitive

1
Deep Lexical SemanticsorCommonsense Knowledge
and Lexical Semantics3. Cognition and the
Cognitive Lexicon
Jerry R. Hobbs Information Sciences Institute
University of Southern California Marina del
Rey, CA
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Where Are We?

• Introduction Core theories of commonsense
• knowledge and their relation to the
  lexicon
  
• Framework Logic and abduction
• Cognition and the cognitive lexicon
• Time and now
• Causality and modality
• Similarity and like

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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Why is Commonsense PsychologyImportant?
In news, almost every sentence is embedded in
some kind of epistemic or communicative oper
ator The White House announced ..., all
eged, refused to comment on, ...
telling us how to think about the content of
the sentence. Text understanding systems will h
ave to have a commonsense theory of how and
why people behave as they do. Intelligent artif
acts and office assistants will inhabit a
world full of people and will have to have m
odels of them. Educational systems will have to
simulate peoples explanations,
justifications, descriptions, and these are
rich in psychological terms.
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Methodology What to Encode
Andrew Gordon (USC/ICT, 2001, 2004)
Collected 372 strategies in 10 different do
mains, from experts (e.g., Machiavelli
in politics) Rewrote them in controlled vo
cabulary of 988 concepts Divided up concep
ts among 48 representational areas
30 of 48 areas involved commonsense
psychology Expand/round out areas by extra
cting NL expressions from corpus of nov
els (Gordon et al., 2003) Develop formal t
heories for the 30 CS psych areas
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Theories inCommonsense Psychology
(from Gordon, 2003)
Memory Knowledge management Similarity compariso
ns Emotions Explanations Envisioning (Thinking)
Execution envisionment Causes of failure Manag
ing expectations Other agent reasoning Threat de
tection Goals Goal themes Goal management
Plans Plan elements Planning modalities Plan co
nstruction Plan adaptation Design Making decisi
ons Scheduling Execution modalities Execution c
ontrol Repetitive execution Plan following Obse
rvation of execution Body interaction
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Why is Memory Important?
We plan to remember actions/information at the
appropriate time. We are responsible for r
emembering. Why was Mary angry that John for
got her birthday? But forgetting is often a le
ss serious breach than some other reason.
Why didnt you get me a present?
I forgot it was your birthday.
vs. I didnt want to.
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Naive Model of Memory
Focus of Attention
concept
store
retrieve
concept
Memory
If in memory, then it was stored
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Accessibility
Concepts in memory have varying accessibility.
concept-1
concept-2
concept-3
threshold
Concepts not retrievable
concept-4
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Associations and Accessibility
concept-1
concept-0
concept-0
concept-3
concept-2
concept-1
concept-3
concept-4
concept-2
concept-4
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Some Words
think-of(a,p) inFocus(p,f) focusOf(f,a)
remember(a,p) change(inMemory(p,m), inFocus
(p,f)) focusO
f(f,a) memoryOf(m,a) accessible(p,a) acc
essibility(p,a) threshold(a)
forget(a,p) change(accessible(p,a), access
ible(p,a))
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Knowledge ManagementBelief
Reify agents and propositions believe(a,p)
Reasoning is possible inside belief belie
ve(a,p) believe(a,p--q) etc --
believe(a,q) in-focus(a,p) in-focus(a,p--
q) -- in-focus(a,q) Perception causes belief (
seeing is believing) Communication tends to cau
se belief BDI We act in ways that maximize sa
tisfaction of our goals, given our beliefs
think-that(a,p) believe(a,p)
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Graded Belief
(Friedman Halpern, 2001)
0 ??gb(a,p) ?? 1 gb(a, pq) ??min(gb(a,p), gb(
a,q)) gb(a, p p--q) gb(a,q) gb(a,p)
gb(a,p) ??1 gb(a,p) 1 believe(a,p)
The higher the graded belief, the more likely
agent is to act on it
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Mutual Belief
mb(s,p) member(a,s) -- believe(a,p)
mb(s,p) -- mb(s,mb(s,p)) These rules are mut
ually believed Can show that if a knows b is a
member of s and a knows s mutually beli
eves p, then a knows that b believes p Mu
tual belief defines communities
Inference of who knows what from membershi
p in communities (also from knowledge of exp
ertise based on rudimentary theory of exper
tise)
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Preliminary Causal Complex
(Hobbs, 2001, 2005)
causal complex
s
causal-complex(s,e) e1 ? s, ....
e5
e2
e1
e3
e
e4
....
effect
When every event or state in s happens or holds,
then e happens or holds. All eventualities
in s are relevant. causally-involved(ei,e)
cause(e1,e) vs. enable(e2,e)
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Preliminary Causal Systems
e1
e9
e4
e7
e2
e6
e10
e5
e8
e3
e11
es are causally involved
causal complex
e
ei
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Preliminary ContiguousCausal Systems
e4
e6
e5
e1
e4
e4
e7
e2
e6
e6
e5
e5
e8
e3
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Envisioning (Thinking)
envisioned causal system slice
think of vs. think that vs. think about
e1
e9
e4
e7
e2
e6
e10
e5
e8
e3
e11
Agent has this in focus
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Envisioned Causal System
Prediction
Explanation
e1
e9
e4
e7
e2
e6
e10
e5
e8
e3
e11
A sequence of envisioned contiguous causal system
slices Envisioning changes in an entitys prope
rties is one way
to think about the entity.
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Correspondence with Reality
If the events and states in the ECS are believed
to be true at time t, the ECS is the curren
t world understanding (CWU) at time t.
Need an account of how graded belief is
increased or decreased as predictions and ex
planations are verified or falsified.
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Expectation
Expectation To expect e is to have an ECS from
CWU to e, where links include the causes, a
nd where ecs is believed. The ecs is the
justification of the expectation.
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Goals and Planning
Causal Knowledge (??e1,x)p(e1,x) -- (?
?e2)q(e2,x) cause(e1,e2)
or, p causes q (??e1,x)p(e1,x)
-- (??e2)q(e2,x) enable(e1,e2)
or, p enables q where enable(e1
,e2) cause(e1,e2) Planning Axioms
(??a,e1,e2)goal(a,e2) cause(e1,e2) etc
-- goal(a,e1) (??a,e1,e2)goal(a,e2) e
nable(e1,e2) -- goal(a,e1) subgoal(
a,e1,e2)
If we want the effect, we want the cause, sometim
es.
If we want the effect, we want the enabling condi
tions.
Means-end reasoning
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Planning as Envisioning
Planning is envisioning from current world
understanding to a goal state with
causally involved specialized to cause a
nd enable and constraints on their complet
eness.
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Collective Goals
Groups can have goals All agents in group
mutually believe the group has the goal
All agents have the individual goal that th
e group achieves its goal Must
bottom out in individual agents actions
Organizations are such collective plans made con
crete an agents role in an organization is
the actions the agent carries out as a sub
goal in the collective plan
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Goal Themes
group of agents
set of possible eventualities
goal-theme(s,t) (? a,e) member(a,s)
member(e,t) etc --- goal(a,e)
From group membership, we can infer beliefs and
goals and thus behavior (defeasibly) e.g.,
hes a puritan / hedonist / geek / Republican /
....
Stipulate goal(a, thrive(a))
All else is causal knowledge/beliefs about what
causes thriving. No separate problem of where goa
ls come from just high-level questions of w
hat causes thriving.
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Plans Beliefs into Actions
The Plan
Belief System
causal knowledge
plan in execution what the agent is
engaged in
in order to thrive
infer
decide
plans in waiting large-scale causal
knowledge
(a variety of envisioning)
Desires Beliefs about the efficacy of events to
cause thriving or some lower goa
l Planning Any instrumental behavior that explo
its causal knowledge of the w
orld
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Preferences
prefer2(a,e1,e2,g) a prefers e1 to e2 in
pursuit of goal g prefer(a,e,g) prefer2(a,
e,e,g) (I prefer not to stand up to chang
e the channel, but I will if I have t
o.) Maximize satisfaction of preferences while
achieving goals Goal g Goal and(g
, maxpref(a,g,?) Maximizing preferences in weig
hted abduction prefer(a,e,g) Rexists(e)
e ? s maxpref(a,g,s?e)1-d
-- maxpref(a,g,s)
strength of preference
this costs (1-d)c
preferences already handled
If this costs c, then
Satisfying preferences lowers cost of proof.
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Scheduling
A plan can have any kind of event, state or
condition as one of its subgoals, including
actions of agent, actions of other
agents, and states or events in the world
beyond control Temporal conditions (event-1 _at_ t
ime-2) are thus legitimate subgoals in a pla
n Scheduling is expanding a partial plan with t
emporal conditions Then we can define sc
hedule capacity next unscheduled moment
etc. Deadline time after which goal no long
er achievable Slack time between expected compl
etion and deadline (a common fo
cus in discourse)
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Plan Adaptation
Tweaking a plan Changing an action in a plan to
a related one to achieve changing a plan for
a goal into a plan for a related
goal by changing an action in the plan to a
related action. tweak(a,p1,g1,p2,g2) plan
(p1,a,g1) plan(p2,a,g2) change(ecs(p1,a),
ecs(p2,a)) (E e1,e2,R1,R2)subgoalsOf(p
2) subgoalsOf(p1) - e1?e2
R1
(g1,g2) R2 (e1,e2) Big problem How to dete
rmine R2 from R1? Plan adaptation a sequence o
f tweaks from a known plan.
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

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Execution Control
Execution control the agents manipulations of
the plan as it unfolds in time Some cruci
al concepts executed left fringe
of a plan those actions that can be done

immediately remaining plan that part of
the plan that has not yet been
executed
same-abstract-plan(p1,p2) p1 and p2 are s
pecializations of a common partial plan
, perhaps with different temporal para
meters
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Aspect
The theory of plans gives us a rich structure for
events so that details of execution can be r
epresented (aspect in NL) start execute an ac
tion in the left fringe of a plan
stop change from executing to not executing
continue executed an action in the left fringe
of the remaining plan resu
me start a temporally displaced instantiation
of the remaining part of the
same abstract plan restart start an instanti
ation of the same abstract plan after stopping
pause stop and then resume ongoing action
being executed or a pause suspend stop with
intention to resume abort stop with no intent
ion to resume
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Outline

• Commonsense Psychology Formalized
• 1. The Strategies Strategy
• 2. Memory
• 3. Knowledge Management
• 4. Envisionment and Expectation
• 5. Goals and Goal Themes
• 6. Plans, Plan Elements, Scheduling,
• and Plan Adaptation
• Execution Control
• The Lexicon of Cognition

39
The Lexicon of Cognition
Examine the following words to see
how their meanings link up with
the core theory mind idea sur
e expect accordingly desire
willing concern
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Mind
1. Another thing comes to my mind is that movie
"Rules of Engagement". 2. "I do not know how ma
ny students we can attract if we go after those
who only seek the life of the mind, assert
ed Michael Behnke, a new vice president hired to
improve recruitment. 3. Cheryl Miller's mind-n
umbing personality -- she almost cheered her team
to the WNBA title. 4. I've got a particular si
tuation in mind about a 1st lieutenant.
5. And with the Coyotes in town, it brought to
mind another zero that left the Kings with an
empty feeling. 6. With the general publ
ic in mind, the museum aims to provide an
overview of the history of European
Jews since the Middle Ages.
7. Thanks to the late-game heroics of veteran l
eft wing Greg Adams, who scored at 1727 of the
final period, they can open a five-game hom
estand Monday against the Kings in a good frame
of mind. 8. Such a thought is only a little mo
re mind-boggling than the way the game unfolded
before a raucous sellout crowd of 69,754.
9. "Now it seems to me the strength of a play i
s that it exists very clearly on that little
stage in the back of your mind, and then it
exists when it's produced". 10. And you don't
want his or her mind on that, you know, you want
focus.
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Mind
Mind as location for concepts, focus of
attention 1, 4, 5, 6, 9 9 hints at int
ernal structure of mind Mind as device for cogn
itive processing, thinking, envisioning
3, 8, 10, maybe 2, maybe 7
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Idea
1. Learning for its own sake is a quaint idea
whose time has passed. 2. If you really get do
wn to it, if it's your idea versus me telling you
to do it, it's going to work out a lot
better. 3. And what I briefed him was a c
omplete lie, and I had no idea.
4. So I told him right then, I said, "Hey, if y
ou've got a good idea, let me know."
5. They also tend to consider the notion of a c
ommon grounding in a set of European books or
ideas to no longer be so important. 6.
So how do you influence them, how do you get buy
in, how do you sell your idea to make them think
it's their own? 7. "Folks have been sol
d on the idea that this is the end of the
world,"says de Jager, who does believe
Y2K will bring four to six weeks of
worldwide disruptions. 8. "Newt's idea was to
tear the House down and build it up all over
again in the way he wanted," said
former U.S. Rep. Harold Volkmer.
9. The idea that any action can be blown out of
proportion makes many members edgy and wary.
10. "Everyone has a vague idea of what the tech
nology will produce everyone has a vague idea of
what consumers will want.
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Idea
Concept with Propositional Content 9
idea that ... Concept that is believed
1, 3, 5, 7 believer is possessor New co
ncept 6, 10, 2?, 4?, 8? inventor is posses
sor Intention, concept of form I will do X
2, 4, 8 idea to ..., intender is possesso
r
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Sure
1. To be sure, some of the officials committed
dubious acts, others used questionable judgment,
and most deserve little sympathy. 2. "Bu
t if you're buying flowers for a wedding and need
a couple dozen place settings, be sure to
negotiate". 3. They weren't sure if the h
and was broken, it was swollen.
4. After a yearlong internal study, IBM has set
up a pervasive computing unit to make sure the
company's various businesses are attuned to
this emerging market. 5. "I'm not sure about t
he younger players, but I know the juniors here
now are mentally ready to take
the next step". 6. Fulmer said he will le
t the players enjoy the week's festivities, but
he wants to make sure football is
the focus. 7. I'm not sure I can work any
other way". 8. "There are very few sure thing
s in our business," he said. 9. "It sure was
not pleasant, and in retrospect I have some
regrets, Junker said. 10. The timing of Butle
r's report surely cannot have been under
Clinton's control.
45
Sure
Graded belief 1, certain 1, 3, 5, 7, 9?, 10
Certain to achieve purpose 8 Make future ev
ent certain to happen 2, 4, 6
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Expect
1. In the Internet business, the forces
propelling the leading companies like America
Online, Yahoo and Amazon.com remained the s
ame -- even if the pace picked up faster than
anyone might have expected. 2. He's ret
ired now, but you just have to tell the people
what to expect. 3. You can not expect a museum
to arrive fully formed". 4. In its long-term
projections, the bowl expects to lose money in
three of the four years of the
agreement, making money this year.
5. I expect you to talk to me. 6. You expec
t the soldiers to be here on time every day, and
the same thing is one of my pet peeves,
too." 7. They expect the Senate to settle
the matter quickly. 8. Several specific e-mai
l messages you are expecting will be forwarded to
you for reading on the display screen of yo
ur cell phone. 9. In March, XM made a deal to
buy two satellites from Hughes and expects to
start broadcasting late in 2000. 10. An
d among its other dozens of channels of music,
news and talk, XM expects to broadcast the first
national Hindu and Mandarin Chinese radio
programs.
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Expect
A Expects that X A Believes X will be true in
future 1, 2, 4, 7 A expects N A bel
ieves that A will have N in future
8 A Expects to X A Believes that A
will do X in future because A intends to do
X 9, 10 A Expects B to X A Believes th
at B will do X in future because A demands t
hat B do X 3, 5, 6 Crosscuts subcategori
zation
48
Accordingly
1. His living arrangements are accordingly
scattered. 2. They are priced accordingly, fro
m 30 to 45. 3. Its practices, the statement
added, "have changed accordingly".
4. The Trojan players seemed to react according
ly. 5. Fair-haired and blue-eyed, she "looked
like a Renoir and was dressed accordingly, "in
the words of the Murphy biographer Calvin To
mkins. 6. Five minutes later, check to see th
at the mixture is simmering -- just a few bubbles
appearing at once -- and adjust the heat ac
cordingly.
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Accordingly
accordingly(e1,e2) e2 is associated with e1
5 accordingly(e1,e2) e2 is caused by e1
1, 3, 4 accordingly(s1,s2) s1 and s2 a
re scales and there is a monotonic causal re
lation between them 2, 6, maybe the rest
50
Desire
1. It's a desired outcome. 2. NYLite items can
be published if desired please credit the
contributor. 3. His stance Monday seemed to re
flect a desire to avoid a situation that could
get out of control. 4. Some newer entrants int
o the European mergers-and-acquisitions market
are trying to further their standings by se
lectively trimming fees as much as 30 percent on
smaller deals to garner much-desired league
table status, said several bankers there.
5. Thanks to the shoemaker's efforts, it even l
ooks as if Pedro might slip into the peaceful
anonymity he so furiously desires. 6. A
ssemble tacos as desired or in this order meat,
a sprinkle of cheeses, cilantro/salad mix, sour
cream, sliced avocado, salsa, more cheese.
7. Discard plastic wrap, and roast pork until i
nternal temperature reaches 150 degrees for a
pink center (or, if desired, adjust cooking
time according to taste). 8. Presley got the l
ife he desired and willed, both on the way up and
for much of the long slide down.
9. Three in four Americans say they would be ho
rrified if their kids grew up to be a Bill
Clinton -- somebody so fixated on satisfyin
g his own desires that he seems oblivious to the
pain he causes when he indulges his passion
s. 10. Cut off ears, remove eyes and head if d
esired".
51
Desire
A goal without a supergoal, or where supergo
al is unimportant, irrelevant, implicit, ..
. 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 In service of relevan
t higher goals 1, 3, 4, 5
52
Willing
1. Has the secretary-general been too willing to
take political risks? 2. Whether his work has
resulted in secret laboratories or usable arms,
no one in Washington seems to know or is wi
lling to say. 3. If it means a change at the t
op, then the Seahawk players are willing to
accept that. 4. Both men have demonstrated a w
illingness to get involved in "hard cases".
5. "We will have a trial and there will be cens
ure and then, God willing, there will be
closure," he said. 6. For Tyson, the ke
y is a willingness to learn. 7. There have bee
n some questions about McAlister's willingness
and ability to play against bigger
receivers. 8. But in the end, the team wa
s not willing to change course today.
9. "The NBA countered our proposal, and we indi
cated to them that we were willing to negotiate
further, which unfortunately they were
unwilling to do at this time".
10. Independent local stores are more willing t
o negotiate than large chains.
53
Willing
willing not intend not after consideration

unwilling intend not
54
Concern
1. The authors portrayed Richard Kaplan, the CNN
/ USA president, as a man concerned more
about "glitz" than substance.
2. "I am not only concerned with material thing
s. 3. Now we're up to 12, 15 drill sergeants,
and one person controlling all of that was not
going to work, as far as I was concerned.
4. Journalists are too concerned with covering
sex and are less concerned with accuracy,
fairness and avoiding bias. 5. The edito
r at Time magazine was seriously concerned about
the truth of Ms. Oliver's accusations
that the United States used nerve gas
against its own troops. 6. At meetings and on
the Internet, the concerned share tips on
stockpiling food, storing water and
coping with potential disruptions to
electricity and other services.
7. The chairman said he is not overly concerned
about anything stifling the private sector.
8. I'd already made a decision and that soldier
had already counted on what I told him was going
to happen as far as I was concerned. 9.
Principally the book is concerned with what
happened on the air and just behind the scenes.
10. "We have always been concerned about someth
ing like this, and we were prepared for it,"
Klein said while standing quarantined with
other employees Wednesday.
55
Concern
about 9 care about 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10
as far as A is concerned 3, 8
A cares about B properties of B are involv
ed in As goals possible emotional component
worry, ...