Anabolic Metabolism

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Anabolic Metabolism

• Anabolic Metabolism, also called, Constructive
  Metabolism is all about building and storing
  supports the growth of new cells, the maintenance
  of body tissue, and the storage of energy for use
  in the future.
• During Anabolism, small molecules are changed
  into larger, more complex molecules of
  carbohydrate, protein, and fat.
• Real Life Example is Anabolic Steroids they
  build up the bodies muscle mass.
• Scientific Example of Anabolic Metabolism is
  Dehydration Synthesis. It involves removing a
  molecule of water to join two smaller molecules.

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Examples

• Examples of Dehydration Synthesis
• Protein
• 
  
• Carbohydrate Fats/Lipids

Water
Peptide Bond
Carbon
Nitrogen
3 Fatty Acid Molecules
3 Water Molecules
3 Fat Molecules
Monosaccharides
Water
Glycerol
Oxygen
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Enzymes and Their Actions

• Most enzymes are globular proteins that make
  specific chemical reactions in cells occur by
  lowering the activation energy required to start
  these reactions.
• Enzymes can speed up metabolic reactions by a
  factor of a million or more.
• Required in very small quantities because as they
  work they are not consumed, therefore they can
  work very rapidly.
• Enzymes are very specific, they act only in a
  particular molecule, which is called its
  substrate.
• Ex The substrate called catalase that is found
  in the peroxisomes of liver and kidney cells.
• Must be able to recognize its specific substrate.
  This ability depends on the shape of the enzyme
  molecule.
• -Enzymes polypeptide chain twists and coils in
  to a unique 3-D conformation that fits the
  particular shape of its substrate molecule.
• Enzyme Catalysis-
• Substrate Enzyme Enzyme substrate complex
  Product Enzyme (unchanged)

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• Some enzymes can process only a few substrate
  molecules, whereas others can handle thousands or
  nearly millions.
• Cellular Metabolism includes hundreds of
  different chemical reactions, each controlled by
  a specific kind of enzyme.
• Often sequences of enzyme-controlled reactions,
  called metabolic pathways, lead to synthesis or
  breakdown of particular biochemicals.
• Hundreds of different kinds of enzymes are
  present in every cell.
• Enzyme names are usually derived from the names
  of their substrates, with the suffix ase added.
• Ex a lipid-splitting enzyme is called a lipase.
  Protein-splitting enzyme is a protease.

Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Product Molecule
Substrate Molecules
Unaltered Enzyme molecule
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Factors that Alter Enzymes.
Since the vast majority of enzymes are proteins,
they can be altered in the same ways that
proteins can (i.e. radiation, heat, electricity,
select chemicals, acids or bases). Low
temperatures may halt enzyme activity and higher
temperatures may cause deformations in the
enzyme. Chemicals may also interrupt or damage
enzyme functions. Cyanide damages cells by
halting their energy collection activities and
ruining enzyme activity in the respiratory system
of the human body
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Regulation of Metabolic Pathways

• Enzymes play a major role in the control of
  metabolic pathways (especially the rate in which
  the pathway functions). Certain Regulatory
  enzymes possess limited numbers of molecules so
  high concentrations of substrates saturate the
  enzyme (which causes the reaction rate of the
  pathway to no longer be affected by the
  concentration of substrates) and thus limits the
  rate of reaction. These rate-limiting enzymes are
  always placed 1st in series of enzymes to avoid
  the accumulation of unneeded intermediate
  products.

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Release of Chemical Energy/ ATP
Energy is the capacity to change something it is
the ability to do work

• Release of Chemical Energy
• Release of chemical energy in the cell often
  occurs through the oxidation of glucose. (
  oxidation- where oxygen is combined with another
  chemical.)
• Burning glucose requires energy to begin the
  process.
• The end-products of these reactions are heat as
  well as stored energy.

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• ATP
• Up to 38 molecules of ATP are produced for each
  molecule of glucose oxidized.
• ATP molecules contain three phosphates in a
  chain an adenine, a ribose and 3 phosphates.
• Energy is stored in the last phosphate bond.
• Energy from the breakdown of ATP powers cellular
  work such as Skeletal muscle contraction, active
  transport across cell membranes, secretion.
• Energy is stored while converting ADP to ATP
  when energy is released, ATP becomes ADP, ready
  to be regenerated into ATP.

Definitions ATP/ adenosine triphosphate-organic
molecule that stores energy and releases energy,
which may be used in cellular processes ADP/
adenosine diphosphate-molecule produced when ATP
loses terminal phosphate
Stephanie Dysart
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ANAEROBIC RESPERATION

• Anaerobic Respiration is a part of cellular
  respiration
• Cellular respiration is what gives cells energy.

• Anaerobic Respiration requires other molecules
  instead of oxygen to produce energy.
• for instance, fermentation is a form of
  anaerobic respiration.

People and animals cannot practice anaerobic
respiration.
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WHY ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION IS IMPORTANT

• To some organisms, the presence of oxygen is
  lethal
• As thus, they can go through fermentation to get
  energy
• Called obligate anaerobes

• There are also elements that shift between both
  anaerobic and aerobic respiration

Like the flower, for instance, which uses oxygen
to produce energy, the soil that the flower is in
can not use oxygen, so instead it uses Anaerobic
respiration.
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GLYCOLYSIS

• The breaking of glucose
• Breaks down the 6-carbon glucose molecule into
  3- carbon pyruvic acid molecules.
• Does not require oxygen, so it is often referred
  to as the anaerobic phase of cellular
  respiration.
• Occurs in the cytoplasm.
• There are 3 main events that occur during
  glycolysis.
• Two molecules of ATP are used to phosphorylate
  glucose and start glycolysis

Stephanie Shaffer
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GLYCOLYSIS CONT.

• The phosphorylated molecule is then broken down
  in a series of reactions into two three carbon
  molecules (lysis).
• A.)Two molecules of NAD capture and are
  reduced to 2 molecules of NADH H
• B.) Four molecules of ATP are produced.

• The end product pyruvate may then either undergo
  areobic respiration in the mitochondria or
  anaerobic respiration (fermentation).

Stephanie Shaffer
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Aerobic Respiration
By Elisa Mejia
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A few quick facts about Aerobic (cellular)
Respiration
      Oxygen is needed for aerobic respiration,
which occurs within the mitochondria.     
  There is a much greater gain of ATP
molecules from aerobic respiration.   
The final products of glucose oxidation are
carbon dioxide, water, and energy. All
reactions start out as anaerobic. They become
aerobic when the cell detects oxygen.
And WHERE does this happen?
.here. (the mitochondria)
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The technical stuff
Balanced Chemical Equation for the oxidation of
Glucose
C6H12O6 6O2 ? 6CO2 6H2O Energy released
(2830 kJ mol-1)

• The 3 Main Steps of Aerobic Respiration
• - Glycolysis- Makes 2 net ATP
• Krebs Cycle- 2 ATP (remaining hydrogen atoms and
  their energy rich electrons
• are removed.)
• - Electron Transport- 32 ATP

Respiration The cellular process that releases
energy from nutrients. Aerobic Requiring
molecular oxygen.
Cellular respiration is the process in which the
chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as
glucose are converted into energy usable for life
processes. Oxidation of organic materialin a
bonfire, for exampleis an exothermic reaction
that releases a large amount of energy rather
quickly.
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The Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical
reactions of central importance in all living
cells that utilize oxygen as part of cellular
respiration. In aerobic organisms, the citric
acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway
involved in the chemical conversion of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon
dioxide and water to generate a form of usable
energy.

• The citric acid cycle begins when a 2-carbon
  acetyl CoA molecule combines with a 4-carbon
  oxaloacetic acid molecule to form the 6-carbon
  citric acid and CoA.
• The CoA can be used again to combine with acetic
  acid to form acetyl CoA. The citric acid is
  changed through a series of reactions back into
  oxaloacetic acid. The cycle repeats as long as
  the mitochondrion receives oxygen and pryuvic
  acid.
• The cycle has three important consequences
• One ATP is produced directly for each citric acid
  molecule that goes through the cycle.
• For each citric acid molecule, eight hydrogen
  atoms with high-energy electrons are transferred
  to the hydrogen carriers NAD and the related FAD
  (flavine adenine dinucleotide)
• As the 6-carbon citric acid reacts to form the
  4-carbon oxaloacetic acid, two carbon dioxide
  molecules are produced.

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Electron Transport Chain

• Electron transport chains are associated with
  membranes, such as the mitochondrial membrane in
  eukaryotic organisms.
• Excited electrons are brought to the electron
  transport chain by electron carriers such as NADH
  and FADH2, which are hydrogen and high energy
  electron carriers.
• NADH and FADH2 are generated by glycolysis and
  the citric acid cycle.
• A Series of 4 enzyme complexes carries and passes
  the electrons from one to another.
• With each successive transfer of electrons, the
  original excited electrons lose some of their
  energy.
• The energy lost from electrons is transferred to
  ATP synthase( an enzyme), where ADP is converted
  to ATP.

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Electron Transport Chain

• The final enzyme of the electron transport chain
  gives up a pair of electrons that combine with 2
  hydrogen ions and an atom of oxygen (from citric
  acid cycle) to form a water molecule.
• Final products are ATP and H2O.

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Cellular Respiration is the process that releases
energy from molecules such as glucose and makes
it available for cellular use
Occurs in 3 series of reactions glycolysis, the
citric acid cycle, and the electron transport
chain - products of these reactions include CO2,
H2O, and energy (38 molecules of ATP) Includes
aerobic reactions (requires oxygen) and anaerobic
reactions (doesnt require oxygen) Glycolysis-
the 6-carbon sugar glucose is broken down in the
cytosol into two 3-carbon pyruvic acid molecules
with a net gain of 2 ATP and the release of
high-energy electrons Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs
Cycle)- The 3-carbon pyruvic acids generated by
glycolysis enter the mitochondria. Each loses a
carbon (generating CO2) and is combined with a
coenzyme to form a 2-carbon acetyl coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA). More high-energy electrons
released
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Each acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon
oxaloacetic acid to form the 6-carbon citric
acid. For each citric acid, a series of reactions
removes 2 carbons (generating two CO2s),
synthesizes 1 ATP, and releases more high-energy
electrons. Electron Transport Chain- the
high-energy electrons still contain most of the
chemical energy of the original glucose molecule.
Special carrier molecules bring the high-energy
electrons to a series of enzymes that convert
much of the remaining energy to more ATP
molecules. The other products are heat and water.
Image of Cellular Respiration -
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carbohydrate pathway
-a metabolic pathway which means it is a
sequence of enzyme controlled reactions. 1.Glycoly
sis- Glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of
pyruvic acid. This occurs in the cytosol and is
anaerobic respiration (without oxygen). 2. At
this point, depending on the amount of available
oxygen, Pyruvic acid will either be converted
into acetyl-coenzyme A or lactic acid.
Oxygen availableacetyl-coenzyme A No
oxygenlactic acid Because of the use of
oxygen, the conversion on pyruvic acid into
acetyl-coenzyme A is a aerobic respiration. 3.
Acetyl-Coenzyme A is then moved inside the
mitochondrion and then into the citric acid
cycle. 4. During the citric-acid cycle,
Acetyl-coenzyme A is converted from organic
material into ATP (usable energy).
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Lipid Pathway

• Lipids are organic compounds that include fats,
  oils, and fatlike substances such as
  phospholipids and cholesterol.
• They can be used as an energy source only when
  broken down into Glycerol and Fatty Acids. The
  fatty acids can then be broken down directly to
  get energy, or can be used to make glucose.
• Other Functions Constitutes a barrier
  for the cell
• Controls
  membrane fluidity
• Controls the flow of
  material in and out of the cell Body
• The actions that occur during the lipid pathway
  take place in the mitochondria.
• 
  
  

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The Protein Pathway

• By Heather Watson

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Protein Pathway

• Proteins provide a wide variety of functions for
  the cell and can be used for energy sources.
• Depending on what food you eat depends on which
  pathway the food will take. Meat take this
  pathway.
• To be used for energy, the nitrogen containing
  groups must be first stripped of amino acids
  (deamination). Deamination occurs in the liver.
• The deaminated portions of the amino acids can be
  decomposed to carbon dioxide and water, and enter
  the citric acid cycle at various sites to yield
  energy.
• Excess protein in the diet can enter anabolic
  pathways and can be converted to fat.
• The rate of a metabolic pathway is determined by
  a regulatory enzyme responsible for one of its
  steps.
• A rate limiting enzyme is the first step in a
  series.

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• The whole point of this pathway is to yield
  energy.
• So whenever you eat a hamburger the bread will go
  down the carbo pathway and the meat will go down
  the protein pathway. While in the protein pathway
  the pathway will separate lipids from proteins.
  This is done by pyruvic acid. Without oxygen the
  pyruvic acid will be stored as fat.

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Carbohydrate Storage sugar and starch

• Metabolic pathways are interlinked so that
  certain molecules can enter more than one
  pathway.
• Carb molecules from food may enter pathways that
  lead to it being used for energy or carbs may
  enter anabolic pathways and be stored.
• Carbohydrate molecules are broken down into
  glucose molecules.
• Excess glucose in cells may enter one of these
  anabolic pathways and be linked into storage
  forms suck as glucogen. Most cells can produce
  glycogen. The liver and blood store the greatest
  amount.
• Glucose can react to form fat molecules, which
  are later deposited in adipose tissue (connective
  tissue that contains stored cellular fat). This
  happens if someone eats too many carbs than can
  be stored as glycogen.
• If someone over eats too many carbs then it can
  cause weight gain.

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Carbs continued

• Following a meal, when blood glucose
  concentration is high, liver cells obtain glucose
  from the blood and synthesize glycogen.
• Between meals, when blood glucose concentration
  is lower, glucose is released into the blood.
• This action makes sure that the body has a
  continual supply of glucose to support cellular
  respiration.

Carbohydrate molecule
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Nucleotides

• Nucleotides make up the skeleton of DNA. A
  nucleotide consists of a 5 carbon sugar
  (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of many
  nitrogenous bases. DNA strands form long strands
  called polynucleotide chains by alternately
  joining their sugar and phosphate portions, which
  provides a backbone structure.
• The nitrogenous bases project from the sugar
  phosphate backbone of one strand and bind, or
  pair, by hydrogen bonds to the nitrogenous bases
  of the second strand. The resulting formation of
  the structure is ladder-like. The two sugars
  forming the two backbones point in opposite
  directions. This is why they are called
  antiparallel.
• In DNA nucleotides there are four bases. Adenine
  two ring structure, Thymine one ring
  structure, Guanine two ring structure, Cytosine
  one ring structure. Cytosine binds with
  Guanine. Adenine binds with Thymine. The strand
  forms a double helix. The individual DNA molecule
  may be several million base pairs long.

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DNA Replication
Replication or the process of creating an exact
copy of DAN takes place in the interphase. Cells
must have a copy of the original cells genetic
information (DNA) so it will be able to
synthesize the proteins necessary to build
cellular parts and carry on metabolism.
Steps

• Hydrogen bonds break between base pairs of the
  double strands.
• Structure unwinds and pulls apart exposing
  bases. (Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine)
• New nucleotide pair with the exposed bases
  forming a hydrogen bond.
• DNA polymerace catalyzes this base pairing (not
  shown)
• Enzymes knit together the new sugar phosphate
  backbone.
• Two strands are made containing one strand of
  original and one new.

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RNA Molecules

• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single stranded
  nucleic acid polymer consisting of nucleotide
  monomers. RNA nucleotides contain ribose rings
  and uracil. It is transcribed from DNA by enzymes
  called RNA polymerases and further processed by
  other enzymes. RNA serves as the template of
  translation of genes into proteins, transferring
  amino acids to the ribose to form proteins, and
  also translating the transcript into proteins.
  RNA is primarily made up of four different bases
  adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. It is
  almost always a single-stranded molecule and has
  a much shorter chain of nucleotides. Synthesis of
  RNA is usually catalyzed by an enzyme, using DNA
  as a template. Initiation of synthesis begins
  with the binding of the enzyme to a promoter
  sequence in the RNA.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• -RNA that carries information from DNA to the
  ribosome sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• -Small RNA chain of about 74-93 nucleotides that
  transfers a specific amino acid to a growing
  polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of
  protein synthesis during translation.
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• -Component of the ribosomes, the protein
  synthesis factories in the cell. Eukaryotic
  ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules.
  Three of the molecules are synthesized in the
  nucleolus.
• -Make up at least 80 of the RNA molecules found
  in a typical eukaryotic cell. Ashley Cox

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Overview of Transcription

• DNA consist of 4 base pairs thymine, adenine,
  cytosine, and guanine.
• RNA consists of the same base pairs except
  instead of thymine, RNA has uracil.
• RNA and DNA bind together. The DNA molecule
  pulls apart, and a portion of the gene is
  exposed.
• The RNA continues move upon the DNA strand until
  it reaches a stop sign. At this point, the RNA
  strand releases the newly formed mRNA molecule
  and leaves the DNA.
• The DNA then unwinds and resumes its
  double-helix structure.
• The process of copying DNA info into the
  structure of an mRNA molecule is called
  transcription.

http//www.ncc.gmu.edu/dna/mRNAanim.htm
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TRANSLATION

• Translation is the process where the series of
  codons on mRNA are translated from the language
  of nucleic acids to the language of animo acids
  and used to assemble the protein.
• After the mRNA leaves the cell nucleus, it
  travels to the ribosome and is there where
  translation takes place.
• Translation consists of three steps
• 1. Initiation- it begins at the start of
  mRNA. A messenger RNA molecule, a
• ribosomal subunit, and a tRNA
  molecule carrying the animo acid bind together to
  
• form a complex.
• 2. Elongation- is the growth of the
  polypeptide chain (animo acid chain) through
• the addition of animo acids.
• 3. Termination- occurs when ribosome
  reaches the stop codon on the mRNA and
• the polypeptide. At this point the
  mRNA and the tRNA molecule are released
• from the ribosome.

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• The whole point of this pathway is to yield
  energy.
• So whenever you eat a hamburger the bread will go
  down the carbo pathway and the meat will go down
  the protein pathway. While in the protein pathway
  the pathway will separate lipids from proteins.
  This is done by pyruvic acid. Without oxygen the
  pyruvic acid will be stored as fat.

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Overview of Protein Synthesis

• Protein Synthesis as a whole, is transcription
  and translation working together.
• In order for translation to happen, transcription
  has to happen first.
• When transcription happens, it creates a mRNA
  which then leaves the nucleus and enters a
  ribosome.
• When the mRNA successfully enters the ribosome,
  the final step of protein synthesis occurs,
  translation.
• After translation has successfully occurred, it
  has created a polypeptide chain, which is a
  protein that will then go where it is needed to
  help another cell form and develop according to
  what is needs to be. ( EX. A liver cell or a skin
  cell)

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Regulation of Metabolic Pathways

• Enzymes play a major role in the control of
  metabolic pathways (especially the rate in which
  the pathway functions). Certain Regulatory
  enzymes possess limited numbers of molecules so
  high concentrations of substrates saturate the
  enzyme (which causes the reaction rate of the
  pathway to no longer be affected by the
  concentration of substrates) and thus limits the
  rate of reaction. These rate-limiting enzymes are
  always placed 1st in series of enzymes to avoid
  the accumulation of unneeded intermediate
  products.

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Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR)

• Borrows a cells machinery for DNA copying
• Allows researchers to make many copies of a gene
• Need for process
• 2 types of short DNA pieces of the gene of
  interest
• (primers)
• Large supply of DNA bases
• The enzymes that replicate DNA
• Process is carried out in a thermal cycler
• Procedure
• Heat is used to separate the 2 strands of DNA to
  be used
• The temperature is lowered and 2 short DNA
  primers are added
• Primers bind to bases of separated strands
• DNA polymerase add bases to the primers and make
  a copy of the original strand
• The template strands are copied over and over
• After 20 cycles 1 million copies of the original
  sequence are made

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• Strength Works good on rare and short DNA
  sequences
• Weakness DNA can be contaminated-false positive,
  mutations
• Used for
• Genetic fingerprinting- blood, hair, saliva
• Paternity testing
• Detection of hereditary diseases
• Cloning genes, mutations
• Analyzing ancient DNA
• Animation http//users.ugent.be/avierstr/principl
  es/pcrani.html

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Mutations

• Mutations are a change in genetic information
  that cause alterations in the DNA sequence,
  causing it to function abnormally or not at all
• 1) Mutations happen during DNA replication, where
  a base may pair up incorrectly with the newly
  forming strand
• OR
• 2) When sections of DNA are deleted or moved, or
  even attach to other chromosomes

• Repair enzymes can correct some forms of DNA
  damages

1) Pairing up incorrectly
2) Deleted section of DNA
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Good Bad Mutations Example Some good
mutations cause people to not be able to become
infected with HIV (AIDS) Some bad examples
are mutations from Chernobyl, where a nuclear
reactor meltdown in 1986 occurred