Research and Communication Techniques

1
Research and Communication Techniques

• Chapter 4 Writing-up Non-Experimental Methods
• Dr Brett Stevens
• e-mail Brett.Stevens_at_port.ac.uk
• phone [phone]
• address West Wing, Eldon Building
• notes http//techfaculty.port.ac.uk/rectp/index.
  htm/

2
The Research Report
Title Abstract Keywords   Introduction   Method
Design Participants Materials /
Apparatus Procedure Results Discussion Concl
usions References
Last chapter we looked at the research reports
Method section for experimental research.
3
This Chapter

• The Method Section AGAIN.
• For Non-Experimental Research
• Aims (and Objectives or Design or Approach)
• Participants
• Materials / Apparatus
• Procedure

4
Experimental / Non-Experimental
5
Non-Experimental Methods

• Correlational Studies  
• Indirect - Survey Research
• Questionnaires
• Interviews
• Journal or Diary.
• Focus Groups.
• Direct - Observational Research
• Non-participant observation
• Participant observation
• Verbal Protocols
• Case-Studies
• Expert Evaluation

There are other methods but these are some of the
most common.
6
Correlational Studies

• Correlational Studies describe a relationship
  between two variables.
• However this relationship can not be assumed to
  be causal (as it can with an experiment).
• Measures can be taken from a formal experiment
  like scenario or from any other quantitative
  source (such as those discussed later).
• The example Journal Article is a Correlational
  Study.

7
The Survey Method

• The Self-Report (or Survey) Method encompasses
  any technique for gaining information by directly
  questioning a participant.
• Principally this uses two measurement techniques,
  questionnaires or interviews.

8
Questionnaires

• A questionnaire should help you to acquire
  information that has not already been collected
  elsewhere and cannot be collected more
  efficiently or effectively by other means.
• A construct type questionnaire (scale
  questionnaire)
• A survey type questionnaire

9
Designing a Questionnaire

• Design
• 1 Select the question response type2 Write the
  questions3 Decide upon the design and layout
• Implementation
• 4 Pilot the questionnaire5 Rewrite, redesign
  and reformat6 Distribute7 Return of the
  questionnaires
• Data processing and analysis
• 8 Process the data9 Analyse the
  data10 Interpret the results

10
Questions and Responses

• When wording your questions, you must avoid
•  
• Ambiguity.
• Imprecision.
• Assumption.
• Presumption.
• Leading the
• respondent

11
Induction Feedback Questionnaire
Fill in the Questionnaire. Now, review the
Questionnaire, with respect to the guidelines
in the notes What problem does it have?
12
Interviews

• Structured interviews can be thought of as a
  questionnaire whereby the questions are asked and
  answered aloud.
• Unstructured interviews allow the interviewees
  answers to trigger new lines of questioning not
  previously considered.
• Semi-structured interviews blend these two
  procedures
• Whatever format is decided upon, build a rapport
  with the interviewees, allay their fears and
  record everything.

13
Other Methods

• A Journal or Diary can be kept by a participant
  over an extended period of time and is useful for
  gaining an understanding of a situation.
• Focus Groups are a sort of group interview (6-12
  people) that debate set topics for 60-90 minutes.
  Useful for gauging opinion on a particular topic.

14
Direct Observation Studies

• Non-Participant Observation is performed by a
  researcher who does not interact in the process.
• Participant Observation aims to understand the
  nature of a given situation and as such the
  researcher becomes part of the process.

15
Direct Observation Approaches

• A structured observation (Systematic
  observations) approach focuses on particular
  patterns or behaviours determined in advance by
  the observer.
• An unstructured observation (Unsystematic
  observations) approach does not presuppose the
  behaviour that is to be observed.

16
Case Studies

• A case study tries to illuminate an event,
  decision or phenomenon by organising research
  data in search of patterns or insights.
• Strictly, case study, refers to the results of a
  research programme rather than a specific method.
• The unit of analysis is the case, which
  typically is an individual, event or some
  physical entity.

17
Expert Evaluation

• Expert Evaluation requires an expert in a
  specific field to assess a situation for problems
  or flaws in order to resolve a real world
  problem.
• These can be used to augment empirical techniques
  to great effect as part of a larger (action
  research) programme.

18
Tutorial

• Continue the coursework
• Please finalise your group and topic today.!
• GET THE DESIGN AND ETHICAL APPROVAL AGREED BY THE
  UNIT LECTURER BY 11th DECEMBER.
• Introduction and Method for NEXT WEEK!!!!! .