Professional Dancers in Ancient Egypt

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Professional Dancers in Ancient Egypt
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Some research issues

• Time span from Predynastic to Greco-Roman Period
• Predynastic through ca. 2524 BCE
• Old Kingdom ca. 2524-2260 BCE (Interregnum)
• Middle Kingdom ca. 2134-1784 BCE
• New Kingdom ca. 1570-945 BCE
• Ptolomaic/Roman domination 332 BCE into 4th
  century CE
• This includes several periods of invasion and
  population change

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Some research issues
Evidence varies different sorts of evidence
from different periods Interpretation of types of
evidence is uncertain (especially artistic
evidence) Assumptions underlying texts and
illustrations may be different from ours Most
work on Egyptian dance was done in the early 20th
century and needs revision.
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Some questions

• Who were the professional dancers and what was
  their social status?
• High society vs. ordinary people very few
  records of ordinary people
• What sort of dancing did professional dancers do?
• Role of dancing within the culture
• What constitutes professional is it always
  (or ever) a valid category within the culture?
• Musicians and Instrumentation and their
  reflection on dance

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Is it Belly Dance?

• If it is, it will be (1) Solo-improvised and (2)
  Based on hip and torso articulation. Look for
• Costuming emphasizing hips?
• Crotala?
• Celebratory occasions?
• Dancers engaged in different movements?
• Vocabulary associated with hip articulation?

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Contexts

• Sacred occasions temple positions and rituals,
  funeral rituals, both depicted and described
• Secular events depicted and described
• Overlap of sacred and secular
• Idealization of both in tomb paintings

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Predynastic Egypt
3800-3500 BCE
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Predynastic Egypt
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Predynastic Egypt
Solo female dancers? Barque sacred occasion or
festival? Significance of male figures?
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Predynastic Egypt
An Old Kingdom example of raised arms as a
convention for dance
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Acrobatic Dancers
Depiction of Acrobatic dancers from the Red
Chapel at Karnak, receptacle of the barque of
Amon.
Context Celebration of Amon, journey of the
barque
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Acrobatic Dancers

• Level of skill may indicate professional training
  
• What status of women does this imply?
  Aristocratic women?
• Women attached permanently to temples for dance
  and other services?

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Acrobatic Dancers
An old kingdom tomb painting (l) and a shard of
pottery (below).
These positions occur elsewhere too. What do they
show about dance? Can we interpret either the
action they show or their meaning?
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Acrobatic Dancers
Related positions in the depiction of
acrobatic(?) dance. Interpretation?
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The hnr
The hnr was a group of musicians and dancers who
provided services for both cult and non-cult
activities. Old kingdom hnr seemed mostly women
later men are attested as well. Singers who
daily rejoice the heart of the king with
beautiful songs -
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Choreographies?
In many instances unity rather than spontaneity
is emphasized
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Status
There is no evidence that female musicians in
Egypt were thought to be of disreputable
character. . . The indication of status that is
associated with musicians is also indicated by
the presence of many women of the upper classes
and the royal family who served as musicians in
temples as well as in the royal residence.
Emily Teeter, Female Musicians in Egypt.
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Status
Throughout Egyptian history, women of high status
are depicted as musicians. No similar depictions
as dancers. Women musicians may have achieved
star status musicians names preserved in
hieroglyphic labels. Not so dancers. Is this a
real difference in status?
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Status
Some dancers are shown nude. Is nudity a status
determinative in art? Probably not, as nudity is
shown in many situations, including even
high-status women. Here 3 musicians are shown in
varying states, presumably without status
differentiation
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Status
Music and dance both evoke sensuality and
pleasures for the taking are women excluded as
consumers of pleasure, and depicted only as
providers for men?
Or are womens roles in creating celebratory
atmospheres respected and counted as a positive
element overall?
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Redjedet
The story of Redjedet explains the birth of the
three first rulers of the fifth dynasty. Ra
sends three goddesses (Isis, Hathor and Nephthys)
to oversee the birth, impersonating a group of
dancer/ musicians.
tomb of Akhenaton
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Redjedet
So these gods set out and they made their
appearance as that of musicians, while Khnum was
with them as porter. When they arrived at the
home of Userre, they found him standing, (his)
loin cloth upside down.
They held out their menat and sistra and he said
to them "My wife, behold, she is a woman
suffering from labour pains". They said "Let us
see her, for behold, we know about child bearing".
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Redjedet
And he said to them "Proceed". They entered to
Redjedet, locking the room behind her and
themselves. Isis placed herself before her,
Nephthys behind her and Heqet hastened the birth.
This child rushed forth onto her arms, a child of
one cubit (in length), strong of bones, his limbs
covered with gold and his headdress of true lapis
lazuli.
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Redjedet
These gods came out, having delivered Redjedet
from child birth and they said "May your heart
rejoice, Userre, for three children are born to
you". And he said to them "My ladies, what
can I do for you? Please, give this sack of
barley to your porter and take it in exchange for
some beer". Khnum loaded himself with the sack
of barley and then they went back to the place
whence they came.
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Redjedet
... The maidservent went down but when she opened
the room, she heard the sound of singing, music,
dancing, shouting and everything that is done for
a king in the room. She went and she repeated all
that she heard to Reddjedet. She the walked
around in the room, but she did not find the
place where it was done.
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Do we find the equivalent of belly
dancing? What is belly dancing Folk form of
solo-improvised dance based on torso
articulation, as performed by dancers for
audiences Can we find solo-improvised dance, and
if so, determine the technique used?
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Solo-Improvised Dance
All the people of all the dwellings of the court
heard (of the coronation of Hatshepsut) they
came, their mouths rejoicing, they proclaimed
(it) beyond everything, dwelling on dwelling
therein was announcing (it) in his name soldiers
on soldiers ..., they leaped and they danced
for the double joy in their hearts. James Henry
Breasted Ancient Records of Egypt, Part Two,
238
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Some Greek Evidence
... the rest of the feast of Dionysos is
celebrated by the Egyptians in the same way as by
the Hellenes in almost all things except choral
dances.... Herodotus, Histories II
... They sail, men and women together, and a
great multitude of each sex in every boat and
some of the women have rattles and rattle with
them, while some of the men play the flute during
the whole time of the voyage, and the rest, both
women and men, sing and clap their hands and
when as they sail they come opposite to any city
on the way they bring the boat to land, and some
of the women continue to do as I have said,
others cry aloud and jeer at the women in that
city, some dance, and some stand up and pull up
their garments. Herodotus, Histories II
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Come northward to the court immediately ...
thou shalt bring this dwarf with thee, which thou
bringest living, prosperous and healthy from the
land of spirits, for the dances of the god, to
rejoice and gladden the heart of the king of
Upper and Lower Egypt, Neferkere, who lives
forever. From the letter of Pepi II to
HarkhufJames Henry Breasted Ancient Records of
Egypt, Part One, 353
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Solo-Improvised Dance
What are the possible conventions of showing this
sort of dance?
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Solo-Improvised Dance
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Solo-Improvised Dance
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Solo-Improvised Dance
1405-1395 BCE tomb of Djeserkareseneb
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Solo-Improvised Dance
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Some Roman Evidence
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Some Roman Evidence
Because it is meant to show cultural difference,
this image is valuable in indicating hip
articulation and solo improvisation in the dance
style of Egypt.
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Some Roman Evidence
The scene depicted is probably the Apis festival.
Is this a formal event or popular dancing?
That is unclear since the iconography is
unconventional.
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Solo-Improvised Dance
Some Roman Evidence

• Women are shown as the main dancers, while the
  men clap in accompaniment or play percussion (?)
• Is this a real perception, or Roman prejudice?

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Musical Accompaniment
Flutes, cymbals, and drums survive Music may have
been more like Nubian music today in rhythm and
sound How persistent is musical style?
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Musical Accompaniment
Percussion is a key element of depictions of
dance rhythmic clapping by women, or frame drums
played usually by women. Cymbals and various
forms of crotala survive
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Musical Accompaniment
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Musical Accompaniment
Here women play lute-like instruments ...
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Musical Accompaniment
Various forms of lyre are depicted. Professional
musicians, or skilled amateurs? Or is
professional the right concept?
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Musical Accompaniment
Several types of reed flutes are played here.
Instruments include flutes and reed-mouthpiece
instruments.
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Greco-Roman Egypt
Issues Greek, Roman and native Egyptian
population mix Detailed information about prices,
social organization, etc. Still little
information about the type of dancing Possible
insight on lifestyle of dancers
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Greco-Roman Egypt

• What are these veiled dancers doing?
• Ordinary women dancing in processions?
• Professional dancers doing a set dance?
• Women casting off inhibition?
• A dance, or a moment in a religious experience?

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Greco-Roman Egypt
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Greco-Roman Egypt
Contract with Isidora
To Isidora, krotalistria, from Artemisia of the
village of Philadelphia. I request that you,
assisted by another krotalistria, total two,
undertake to perform at the festival at my house
for six days beginning with the 25th of the month
Payni according to the old calendar, and you two
to receive as pay 36 drachmas for each day, and
we to furnish in addition 4 artabas of barley
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Contract with Isidora
and 24 pairs of bread loaves, and on condition
further that, if garments or gold ornaments are
brought down, we will guard these safely, and
that we will furnish you with two donkeys when
you come down, and a like number when you go back
to the city. Year 14 of Lucius Septimius Severus
Pius Pertinax (206 CE)
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Greco-Roman Egypt

• Isidora as independent business-woman
• Works with other dancers on a loose basis is
  she a booking agent as well as a dancer?
• A woman hires them on behalf of the community a
  wealthy woman performing a liturgy?

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Greco-Roman Egypt
Contract with Isidora

• Usually a binding fee is set in advance
• Dancers are expected to have fine costumes and
  jewelry (portable wealth and display)
• Style of dance?
• Dancers vs. prostitutes Greek vs. Egyptian?

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Greco-Roman Egypt

• Pay is well above the rate for other labor days
  working is an issue though
• Board and transportation provided in a standard
  contract

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Greco-Roman Egypt

• Other contracts day rates for musicians similar
  to other laborers was Isidora a star?
• How often did a working dancer work?
• What about her musical accompaniment? None
  mentioned in the contract ...

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Greco-Roman Egypt
Hiring Zenobios
Demophon to Ptolemaios, greetings. By all means
send me the flute-player Petous with both the
Phrygian and other flutes and if any expenditure
is necessary, pay it and you will be reimbursed
by me. Send me also Zenobios the effeminate
dancer kinaidos with the drum and cymbals and
castanets, for the women want him for the
sacrifice and let him be dressed as elegantly as
possible. Get the kid from Aristion and send it
to me. And you have arrested the slave, hand him
over to Semphtheus to bring to me. Send me also
as many cheeses as you can, empty jars,
vegetables of every sort, and whatever delicacies
you have. Farewell. Put them on board with the
policemen who will help to bring the boat along.
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finis
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