The Study of Learning and Behaviour

1
Chapter 2

• The Study of Learning and Behaviour

2
Science is a Way of Thinking

• Understanding the natural, physical world
• Asking questions
• Systematically seeking answers
• Observation

3
Basic Assumptions of Science

• 1. A true, physical universe exists
• 2. The universe is primarily an orderly system
• 3. The principles of the orderly universe can be
  discovered
• 4. All knowledge is tentative

4
Natural Science Approach to Psychology

• All behaviour is caused
• Causes precede their effects
• The causes of behaviour, like the causes of other
  natural events, include only natural phenomena
• The simplest explanation that fits the data is
  best

5
Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

• Science

Empiricism
Rationalism (Logic)
Authority
Intuition
Tenacity
6
Scientific Research Involves

• Creating and posing a question
• Determining how to answer it
• Planning and making empirical observations
• Rationally interpreting the observations

7
Science of Behaviour

• Circular explanations

Q why did the chicken cross the road?
Q how do we know the chicken wanted to get
to the other side of the road?
A to get to the other side.
A because it crossed the road.

• Focus on physical events that elicit behaviour

8
Hard Line Behaviorism

• John B. Watson
• Anti-Introspection
• Psychology as serious science
• Only use observable events somewhat outdated in
  the absolute sense

9
Facts and Inferences

• Most facts observed in psychology are behaviours
• e.g., intelligence, thinking, etc. not facts
• The internal condition is not observed it is
  inferred
• Derived from observed facts
• Ideas formed from inferences are constructs
• Dont actually exist not facts, but treated as
  if they are

10
Learning

• A change in behaviour
• Experience
• Acquisition of new behaviour
• Loss of old behaviour
• Observable behaviour change a fact

11
Behaviour

• Anything an agent does that can be measured

Experience

• Events that affect or have potential to affect
  behaviour
• Stimulus
• Physical event (internal or external to body)

12
Behaviour Change and Learning

• Not all change due to learning
• Maturation
• Fatigue
• Medication
• Evolution
• Injury
• Etc.

13
Measuring Learning

• Measure changes in behaviour
• Reduction in errors
• Change in topography
• Change in intensity
• Change in speed
• Change in latency
• Change in rate or frequency

14
Operational Definitions

• Precise way of defining events
• Multiple observers can agree on occurrence of
  event
• Can be variation in behaviour
• Interobserver reliability

15
Learning Curve

• Across situations
• Humans/non-humans
• Habituation, classical, operant, observational,
  etc.
• Commonly shown in textbooks

Responses/speed/ errors/etc.
Time/trials
16
Sample Size
Maze study with rats Errors across trials
17
Levels of Constraint

• Precision vs. flexibility
• Sacrifice
• How much constraint?
• Highest possible, given the questions being asked

18
Study Designs

• Anecdotal evidence

• Naturalistic observations

• Case-study

• Descriptive

• Experimental research

19
Anecdotal Evidence

• First or second hand reports
• Personal experience
• Unidentified factors

20
Naturalistic Observations

• Observe subjects in natural setting
• Minimum interference
• Limited controls
• Semi-naturalistic

21
Case Study

• Individual or small group
• Detailed analysis
• Time consuming
• Representative sample?

22
Descriptive

• Often questionnaires, interviews, pre-existing
  data, simple data collection, etc.
• Often, but not always, uses
• Descriptive statistics (e.g., mean, st.dev.)
• Correlational statistics positive, negative,
  none
• Statistical analysis of (usually, but not always)
  large data pool
• Correlation is not causation

23
Experimental Research

• Manipulate one or more variables
• Measure effect
• Independent and dependent variables
• High control
• Artificial environment?
• Simplistic dependent variable (i.e., behaviour)?

24
Between-Subjects Designs

• 2 groups of subjects
• Independent variable different across groups
• Dependent variable differences due to exposure to
  different independent variables
• Representative sample
• Matched sampling

25
Within-Subject Design

• Each subject observed in different conditions
• Baseline and treatment phases
• ABAB design
• Independent variable varies within the subject
• Each subject both control experimental group

26
Variables

• Variable Any set of events that may have
  different values
• Behavioural variables
• Stimulus variables
• Subject variables
• Independent variables
• Dependent variables
• Constants

27
Validity and Reliability

• Validity
• How well a study, a procedure, or a measure does
  what it is supposed to do.
• Reliability
• How well a measure can be reproduced
• Replicability

28
Hypotheses

• Hypothesis A statement about relationships among
  variables that implies empirical testability
• Applied to a study or elements of a study
• A mini-theory

29
Theories

• Theory A formalized set of concepts that
  organizes observations and inferences, and
  predicts and explains phenomena
• Applied to a collection of data derived from many
  studies
• Testable
• Theories can only be disproved

30
Judging Scientific Theories

• Testability/falsifiability
• Simplicity
• Generality
• Fruitfulness
• Agreement with the data

31
Evaluating Research

• Replication
• Reliability
• Conflicting results
• Sampling bias
• Sample collection of subjects selected for a
  study
• Population much larger collection of animals or
  people from which the sample was drawn

32
Evaluating Research

• Placebo effects
• Distortions in self-reports
• Self-reports subjects give a verbal/written
  account of their own performance
• Demand characteristics
• Experimental bias
• Intentional and unintentional
• Single-, double-, and triple-blind procedures

33
Models

• Representations of reality
• Models are analogies
• Do not duplicate reality
• Need not be real
• Must make accurate predictions
• New ideas generated from models

34
Animal Research

• Comparative psychology
• Control over variables, genetics, learning
  history
• Human ethics

35
Issues

• Differences between species
• Knowledge of species
• Theoretical vs. practical value
• Ethical use of animals
• Computer simulations