Polyatomic ions

1
Polyatomic ions

• Poly Many
• Atomic having to do with atoms
• ions having a charge or

2
Nomenclature

• A System of Naming Compounds
• Compounds are two or more atoms of different
  elements bonded together.
• Even though the gases O2, N2, F2, and Cl2 travel
  in pairs, their names are simply oxygen,
  nitrogen, fluorine, and chlorine.

3
Whats in a name?

• When two people use different names for the same
  thing, misunderstood words are apt to happen.
  The British and Americans often get confused

4
trunk (car) boot kerosene paraffin pacifier
dummy
5
band-aid plaster sidewalk pavement eraser
rubber cookiebiscuit
6
Date 1891Location EnglandProfessor G. J.
StoneyCourse Chemistry 15Length 2 days
7
1. Electric charge is of two types
Positive and negative
2. Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.
8
3. Charge may be transferred to another by
contact or induction.
9
3. Charge may be transferred to another by
contact or induction.
By induction
10
4. The less the distance the greater the force of
attraction (for unlike charges) or force of
repulsion (for like charges)
11
Coil of wire
battery
_

_

compass
12
Coil of wire
battery
_

_

compass
Copper Chloride
13
Coil of wire
battery
_

_

compass
Copper (II) Chloride
14
If copper atoms are going to the negative side,
what charge do they have?
What about the chlorine atoms?
Coil of wire
battery
_

_

compass
Copper Chloride
15
Since the atoms wandered towards each side, lets
call them IONS from the Greek word, ion, meaning
wanderer.
Coil of wire
battery
_

_

compass




Copper Chloride
16
Also, since the positive side of a battery is
called the anode (way up), well call ions that
go towards it anions.
Since the negative side of a battery is called
the cathode (way down), well call ions that go
towards it cations.
_

anode
cathode
_

anode
cathode




Cations
Anions




Copper Chloride CuCl2
17
Swedish scientist, Arrhenius tried the same
experiment without water.
_

anode
cathode
_

Sodium Chloride NaCl
anode
cathode
18
When the sodium chloride melted, it began to
conduct current and a gas formed at the anode and
a gray metal formed on the cathode.
_

anode
cathode
_

Sodium Chloride NaCl
anode
cathode
19
This year, 1891, Id like to introduce a new
word. I want a name for whatever atoms possess
that allow them to carry a charge. I want to
call them electrons.
I picked the word, electron, because the Greek
word for amber is Elektron.
20
Amber is tree sap from an extinct tree that has
been buried for a long time and hardened. You
can often see pieces of plant material and
insects like ants or mosquitoes in amber. Also,
our ancestors found that if you rubbed amber with
fur you get what we now call static electricity.

21
The word electricity comes from the Latin word,
electricus, which means that which is produced
when amber is rubbed. The word, electricity was
introduced in 1645.
22
We learned how to make electricity and learned
some of its behavior. We also believed that it
was something separate from matter.
However, now I believe electricity is possible
because atoms have what Im calling electrons in
them which gets involved when theres electricity
flowing.
23
I propose a new quality to be added to atoms.
Atoms have one or more electrons
electron
electron
electron
electron
Mendeleyev did not believe electrons were part of
the atom
24
Electrons are in orbit around the nucleus.



25
Updated view of the structure of the atom.
The atom is no longer considered indivisible.
However, we are still keeping the name atom.
One reason its not indivisible is that we can
strip off electrons from atoms using high voltage.
26
If you take a glass tube and pump out most of the
air and apply high voltage, electrons will leave
the negative side and fly to the the positive
side. We call this stream of electrons, cathode
rays.
_

Xrays
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
27
Polyatomic ions

• Poly Many
• Atomic having to do with atoms
• ions having a charge or
• How do more than one atom come together?

28
Ne
29
sulfite
-2
S
O
(Sulfur dioxide) Occurs naturally in the
atmosphere and as a pollutant gas from combustion
of fuels with sulfur. Sulfur dioxide is one
cause of acid rain. It is also used as a
bleach, disinfectant and refrigerant. Used as a
preservative in wine for its antibacterial
properties, and as a bleaching agent in flour.
Sulfur dioxide may be used to fumigate fruit and
vegetables to extend their shelf life.
30
sulfite
-2
O
O
O
S
S
S
O
S
O
O
O
O
O
(Sulfite) Used to sterilize fermentation
equipment and food containers, as well as for its
antimicrobial properties. Generally meat, cereals
and dairy products may not be treated with it as
it destroys thiamine (vitamin B1) content. Over
exposure to sulfites in food may cause an
asthmatic attack. 1 out 100 people are sensitive
to sulfite causing allergic reactions. Some
people have died.
31
sulfite
-2
-2
sulfate
Sulfate
O
O
O
O
S
O
S
O
S
S
O
S
O
O
O
O
O
O
Sulfuric Acid 2H SO4-2 Calcium sulfate
(Gypsum-drywall) (White Sands, NM) Magnesium
Sulfate (Epson salts) Barium Sulfate (contrast
medium for xrays) Copper sulfate is an algaecide.
32
chlorite
chlorate
perchlorate
hypochlorite
O
O
O
Cl
O
O
Cl
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
O
O
O
O
Cl
O
Cl
O
33
O
Cl
O
4-5 million pounds per day Chlorine dioxide for
disinfecting drinking water, bleaching paper
pulp, treating foods such as shrimp, fruits,
vegetables, flour. Sanitizing food processing
equipment. Chlorine dioxide used to sterilize
water in water treatment plants. Chlorine dioxide
was used to fumigate Fed buildings for anthrax.
It was created at the site.
34
perchlorate
chlorate
chlorite
O
O
O
hypochlorite
Cl
O
O
Cl
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
O
O
O
O
Cl
Chlorate perchlorate strong oxidizers Metallic
chlorates/perchlorates turn into salt plus
oxygen. Fireworks explosives
35
N
N
Phosphite?
O
P
O
36
Carbonates
-2
CO2 H2O -gt H2CO3 -gt H HCO3-1 -gt 2H CO3-2
O
Important in the body to maintain correct pH in
blood.Not enough breathing and CO2 levels rise
leading to more acidity and condition called
acidosis. Hyperventilation and too much CO2
being expelled leads to condition of alkalosis.
-
C
O
-
O
This same reaction happens in making carbonated
drinks. Compressed CO2 is bubbled through water
making carbonic acid.
37
Carbonates
-2
CO2 H2O -gt H2CO3 -gt H HCO3-1 -gt 2H CO3-2
O
-
CaCO3 is a common mineral. One form is calcite.
It is often created by marine life. Coral is
mostly CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) and is used as a
calcium supplement. TUMS is also calcium
carbonate and is promoted as acid neutralizer and
calcium supplement
C
O
-
O
38
AMMONIA
Ammonia is created in the body from digestion of
proteins and aminoacids. If theres an excess
of nitrogen, the body converts it to urea, which
is less toxic. Urea is expelled in the
urine. Some babies are born without the enzymes
to convert ammonia to urea, so they develop
hyperammonemia, which is fatal or will cause
brain damage. Ammonia is formed when animal waste
is decomposed by bacteria.
39
AMMONIA Water Ammonium Hydroxide
-
N
-
-
Ammonia added to water will form ammonium
hydroxide (cleaning ammonia)
Ammonium nitrate Fertilizer, explosivesAmmonium
chloride conducts electricity inside dry-cell
batteries. Also used in cough medicines to hide
the taste of bitter tasting medicines.
40
Acetate
Acetic Acid (vinegar)
-1
-
C
O
C
-
-
-
O
When hydrogen proton comes off or reacts with
something, its electron is left behind. This
makes the remaining molecule negatively charged.
It then becomes the acetate ion. The negatively
charged acetate ion is then attracted to anything
positive, such as metals that have lost an
electron.
41
Acetate
Sodium acetate is used for instant heating pads
By breaking a capsule a seed crystal of sodium
acetate allows the crystallization of the
supercooled liquid sodium acetate. Zinc acetate
in lozenges to fight colds.
-1
-
C
O
C
-
-
Na
-
O
Calcium acetate is used as a thickener in
batters, butter, puddings, pie fillers. It also
is used to adjust acidity (pH) of foods and to
preserve foods. Ammonium acetate is used in
permanent waves and haircare products.
42
Acetate
Cellulose acetate made from acetic acid and
cellulose (wood fiber) used to make clear
plastic, fabrics, and movie film (celluloid)
-1
-
C
O
C
-
-
-
O
43
bicarbonate
-1
Baking soda is Sodium bicarbonate or NaHCO3.
This reacts with acids in the food to form carbon
dioxide gas to get the batter to rise. NaHCO3
H -gt Na H2O CO2(gas)Baking powder has its
own acids to help the reaction to take place.
-
O
C
O
O
-
To reduce acidity in the blood, sometimes sodium
or potassium bicarbonate are injected into
patients that have developed diabetes induced
acidosis. Other conditions that cause acidosis
may also be treated by bicarbonates.
44
phthalate
phthalic acid
diethyl phthalate Plasticizer Softens
polyvinyl chloride plaster for chew toys and for
saran wrap. Also used in cosmetics, insecticides,
and food wrapping. Concern over it leaching into
food.
Tygon tubing. PVC softened with below ester used
for surgical tubing. Good for contact with blood
and pumps. Also wound drainage.
45
(No Transcript)
46
Acetate
Sodium acetate is used for instant heating pads
By breaking a capsule a seed crystal of sodium
acetate allows the crystallization of the
supercooled liquid sodium acetate.Think of the
thermal pack as a kind of rechargeable heat
battery. In its cool state, the pack holds a
liquid solution of sodium acetate -- a type of
salt -- and water. A small metal disc about the
size of a dime floats inside. Snap the disk and
the pack changes within seconds from a clear,
cool liquid to a hot, crystalline solid that can
stay warm for hours. To use it again, boil the
hard pack in water for about 10 minutes until it
melts and let it cool.What's going on? Palca
explains by beginning at the end.Boiling the
hard pack melts the crystals and forces the
sodium acetate back into a liquid. In this liquid
state, the sodium acetate stores the heat from
the boiling process.Under normal circumstances,
sodium acetate solution turns back into a solid
when it cools. But it's possible to keep it in
liquid form as long as it's kept in a smooth
pouch with nothing inside to which the sodium
acetate molecules can adhere. This prevents
crystals from forming and changing the liquid
into a solid.Twisting the disk ignites a kind
of chain reaction a single crystal forms and
then the rest of the sodium acetate rushes to
crystallize. The chemical energy released as the
crystals form is given off as heat. Essentially,
the pack is a rechargeable battery Boiling the
pack recharges it by restoring heat to the
solution. Zinc acetate in lozenges to fight
colds.
Sodium acetate Is employed in diuretic
expectorant and systemic alkalizers, and for
kidney dialysis processes.
Calcium acetate is used as a thickener in
batters, butter, puddings, pie fillers. It also
is used to adjust acidity (pH) of foods and to
preserve foods. Ammonium acetate is used in
permanent waves and haircare products.
Cellulose acetate made from acetic acid and
cellulose (wood fiber) used to make clear
plastic, fabrics, and movie film (celluloid)
47
AMMONIA AMMONIUM
Ammonium nitrate Fertilizer, explosivesAmmonium
chloride conducts electricity inside dry-cell
batteries also used in cough medicines to hide
the taste of bitter tasting medicines.
-
N
-
-
Ammonia added to water will form ammonium
hydroxide (cleaning ammonia) Ammonia is created
in the body from digestion of proteins and
aminoacids. In water, ammonia pulls off a
hydrogen nucleus from water and becomes
positively charge. If theres an excess of
nitrogen, the body converts it to urea, which is
less toxic. Urea is expelled in the urine. Some
babies are born without the enzymes to convert
ammonia to urea, so they develop hyperammonemia,
which is fatal or will cause brain
damage. Ammonia is formed when animal waste is
decomposed by bacteria.
48
Chlorate perchlorate strong oxidizers Metallic
chlorates/perchlorates turn into salt plus oxygen.
perchlorate
chlorate
chlorite
O
O
O
hypochlorite
Cl
O
O
Cl
O
Cl
Cl
Cl
O
O
O
O
Cl
One source showed resonance of Cl double bond to
Oxygen with one free electron (another source
said this is wrong) ClO2, a radical, undergoes
photodecomposition in the stratosphere where the
products of this reaction react with ozone.
Mineral called chlorite but theres no chlorine
in it Formed when chlorine dioxide hits water
S2 not involved?
The oxidation level of the chlorine atom in
chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is 4, while in elemental
chlorine (Cl2) the oxidation level of the
chlorine atom is 1. ClO2, a radical, undergoes
photodecomposition in the stratosphere where the
products of this reaction react with ozone. 4-5
million pounds per day Chlorine dioxide for
disenfecting drinking water, bleaching paper
pulp, treating foods such as shrimp, fruits,
vegetabls, flour. Sanitizing food processing
equipment. (USPS)
O
Cl
O
Chlorine dioxide used to sterilize water in water
treatment plants.Also to bleach paper Chlorine
dioxide was used to fumigate Fed buildings for
anthrax. It was created at the site. The USpostal
Service also show this lewis structure.
49
O
C
O
O
N
O
O
O
N
O
N
N
O
O
O
O
One source said oxygen was two radicals(2
unpaired electrons), which is why is can support
combustion so well and that the magnetic
resonance show that it is a triplet.
O
O
O
50
Historically it was considered one of the four
alchemical "spirits". In modern times it found
use as an electrolyte for batteries, and as cough
medicine flavoring to hide the taste of some
medicines, and as a fluid retentative agent. Sal
Ammoniac was named after it was observed in the
Temple of Zeus-Ammon in Egypt, it's name means
"salt of Ammon". It was the white crystaline
substance that remained on the ceiling and walls
after camel dung was burned. The modern name
"ammonium" comes from Sal Ammoniac.
In classical times, sal ammoniac was discovered
by accident through burning the dung of camels in
the temple of Jupiter Ammon at Siwa oasis in
Libya. "Ammonia" is a genus name in the
Foraminifera (marine planktonic protozoa with a
calcium carbonate shell, whose remains have
contributed to limestone and chalk deposits), and
"ammonites" are an extinct group of cephalopod
whose fossil shells are abundant from the
Paleozoic. In both cases, the shell is formed of
a series of chambers, arranged in a spiral, and
the name is given for the "Horn of Ammon", the
ram's horns that the god by whose temple the
ammoniacal camel dung was to be found (see above)
was supposed to have had. In the Bible it is
related that, Jephthah smote the Ammonites, with
the help of God, who accepted Jepthah's daughter,
as a burned offering, as compensation (Book of
Judges). Presumably, these Ammonites (descendants
of the offspring of Lot and his daughter) were
followers of the same horny deity.
51
H
H
H
H
O
C
C
H
H
Relatively stable, persistent free radical
compounds include Fremys salt (Potassium
nitrosodisulfonate, (KSO3)2NO)and nitroxides,
(general formula R2NO).
Free radicals play an important role in a number
of biological processes, some of which are
necessary for life. However, because of their
reactivity, these same free radicals can
participate in unwanted side reactions resulting
in cell damage. Some forms of cancer are the
result of reactions between free radicals and
DNA, resulting in cancerous cell mutations. Some
of the symptoms of ageing such as atherosclerosis
are also attributed to free-radical induced
oxidation of many of the chemicals making up the
body. In addition free radicals contribute to
alcohol-induced liver damage, perhaps more than
alcohol itself. Radicals in cigarette smoke have
been implicated in inactivation of an
antiprotease in the lung, which leads to the
development of emphysema. Because free radicals
are necessary for life, the body has a number of
mechanisms to minimize free radical induced
damage and to repair damage which does occur.
Antioxidants play a key role in these defense
mechanisms
52
H
N
C
O
H
H
C
H
H
N
O
H
H
O
N
Nitroxide-a stable free radical Molecular Orbital
Theory says why? if I could understand it.
Molecular Orbital Theory says why? if I could
understand it.
53
http//www.chemsoc.org/exemplarchem/entries/2001/a
nderson/preservatives.htm
(Sulfur dioxide) Occurs naturally in the
atmosphere and as a pollutant gas from combustion
processes, sulphur dioxide is implicated in
formation of acid rain and has a choking odour.
It is commercially produced either by combustion
of sulphur, hydrogen sulphide or gypsum. Most
industrially produced sulphur dioxide is used in
the production of sulphuric acid, but it is also
used as a bleach, disinfectant and refrigerant.
Used as a preservative in wine for its
antibacterial properties, and as a bleaching
agent in flour. Sulphur dioxide may be used to
fumigate fruit and vegetables to extend their
shelf life. Sulphur dioxide may not be used for
foods containing a significant amount of
thiamine, as this is destroyed by the gas.
The sodium salt of sulphurous acid. Used to
sterilize fermentation equipment and food
containers, as well as for its antimicrobial
properties. Generally meat, cereals and dairy
products may not be treated with E221 as it
destroys thiamine content. Over exposure to
sulfites in food may cause an asthmatic attack.
54
Today, ammonium perchlorate and the other
perchlorate salts are used in a wide range of
applications, including pyrotechnics and
fireworks, blasting agents, matches, lubricating
oils, textile dye fixing, nuclear reactors,
tanning and finishing leather, rubber
manufacturing, electroplating, aluminum
refinishing, automobile air bag inflators, paint
and enamel production, and pharmaceuticals (3).
The most common use for ammonium perchlorate is
in explosives and rocket propellant. Because it
has a limited shelf life, the ammonium
perchlorate used in the nation's rocket and
missile supply must occasionally be replaced. As
a result, large amounts of the compound are
periodically disposed
perchlorate. Because of its easy solubility it
gets into the ground water easily as is a concern
for toxicity of water.
55
O
O
S
O
S
O
O
O
Na
O
Na
Bisulfite ion?
O
O
O
S
S
SO2 H2O O2 gt
Na metabisulfite
56
Sulfates (tetrahedral to 4 oxygens) Magnesium
Sulfate is Epsom salts Sulfuric acid Copper
sulfate is a algeacide Most sulfates are soluble
except for CaSO4, SrSO4, and BaSO4 BaSO4 used in
xrays as contrasting medium.
57
H
H
O
O
O
S
O
O
S
O
H
H
O
O
O
H
O
-
SO2 H2O O2 gt sulfuric acid This also shows
the anti-oxidant nature of SO2
O
S
H
O
SO2 dissolves in water makes sulfurous
acid(sulfite 2H)
58
Chromate (chromium color)

• Lead chromate was used in yellow, red, and orange
  paints. But was outlawed for use in homes
  because of lead poisoning as children chewed on
  peeling paint.
• chromate CrO4 2- yellow
• dichromate Cr2O72- orange
• Cr3 is green

Potassium dichromate is a powerful oxidizing
agent and is the preferred compound for cleaning
laboratory glassware of any possible organics.
59
http//www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/hazardous/sa
cnitrate.html It's found naturally in foods like
spinach, lettuce, beets, and carrots. Where
nitrate comes from It is often difficult to
pinpoint where the nitrate in drinking water
comes from because there are so many
possibilities. The source of nitrate and nitrogen
may be from runoff or seepage from fertilized
soil, municipal or industrial wastewater,
landfills, animal feed lots, septic systems,
urban drainage, or decaying plant
material. Health concerns High nitrate levels in
drinking water can pose a special risk for
infants. When an infant takes in nitrate, it's
converted into another compound called nitrite.
Nitrite causes the hemoglobin in the blood to
change into a substance called methemoglobin.
This reduces the ability of the blood to carry
oxygen, causing a condition known as
methemoglobinemia, or "blue baby syndrome." When
this happens, the skin turns blue -- similar in
color to the blood vessels under the skin.
Medical treatment should be sought immediately
for this condition. Prompt medical attention
usually results in a quick recovery. In severe
cases, nitrate poisoning can be fatal. Why are
infants more susceptible? Adults can take in
large amounts of nitrate without any harm.
Infants are more susceptible partly because their
stomach juices are less acidic. That promotes the
growth of a certain kind of bacteria which
converts the nitrate into nitrite. Infants under
six months of age are the most susceptible. Older
children are rarely affected because of
developmental changes that occur as they grow.
Women who are pregnant already have elevated
methemoglobin levels in their blood. That may
make them more susceptible to methemoglobinemia
after the 30th week of pregnancy
60
Phosphate PhosphitePhosphorus (light bringer
glows in dark)
phosphorus was first isolated in 1669 by Hennig
Brand, a German physician and alchemist, by
boiling, filtering and otherwise processing as
many as 60 buckets of urine. Thankfully,
phosphorus is now primarily obtained from
phosphate rock (Ca3(PO4)2).
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is used in soft drinks
and to create many phosphate compounds, such as
triple superphosphate fertilizer
(Ca(H2PO4)2H2O). Trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4) is
used as a cleaning agent and as a water softener.
Calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) is used to make
china and in the production of baking powder.
Some phosphorus compounds glow in the dark or
emit light in response to absorbing radiation and
are used in fluorescent light bulbs and
television sets.
-3
-3
-
-
O
O
P
O
-
P
O
O
-
O
O
-
-
Phosphorous acid use in agroculture, antiscale
and corrosion Trialkyl phosphates (RO)3P for
plasticizers, flame retardants, antifoams,
Diakly hydrogen phosphates used in lubricants
61
Phosphate Phosphite
an effervescent drink of carbonated water with a
small amount of phosphoric acid flavored with
fruit syrup

• adenosine triphosphate (commonly called ATP) is
  the "molecular currency" of intracellular energy
  transfers. It is a means of storing and
  transporting chemical energy within the cell and
  a precursor for RNA formation.
• In a biochemical setting, a free phosphate ion in
  solution is called inorganic phosphate, to
  distinguish it from phosphates bound in the form
  of ATP,
• In living systems, phosphate ions can also be
  created by the hydrolysis of a larger ion called
  pyrophosphate, which has the structure P2O74-,
  and is denoted PPi.
• P2O74- H2O ? 2HPO42-
• In ecological terms, phosphate is often a
  limiting reagent in many environments--the
  availability of phosphate governs the rate of
  growth of many organisms. Introduction of
  non-naturally occurring levels of phosphate to
  those environments causes an ecological
  disequilibrium, leading to booms in the
  population of some organisms and subsequent busts
  in the populations of others deprived of other
  nutrients or essential elements by the rapid
  growth and consumption by the booming population.

62

• White phosphorus glows in dark when exposed to
  the air. Instantly flammable, and is poisonous.
  red phosphorus is less reactive and not
  poisonous.
• Phosphate rocks are heated and vaporized. The
  condensate is white phosphorus.
• In order to glow, a product must contain a
  phosphor.  A phosphor is a substance made up of
  specialized particles that radiate (send out)
  visible light after being energized.  Phosphors
  can be charged in many different ways.  Light,
  special types of radiation, and even electron
  beams, can energize different phosphors.  What
  you most commonly see in glow-in-the-dark toys is
  either a substance called zinc sulfide or
  strontium aluminates.  These two substances can
  be charged by light radiation and have a long
  persistence.  The persistence of a phosphor is
  the length of time it stays aglow.  The major
  difference between these two substances is that
  strontium aluminates glow for a longer period of
  time than zink sulfide.

63

• Phosphates are utilized in the making of special
  glasses that are used for sodium lamps.
• Bone-ash, calcium phosphate, is used in the
  production of fine china and to make mono-calcium
  phosphate which is employed in baking powder.
• This element is also an important component in
  steel production, in the making of phosphor
  bronze, and in many other related products.
• Trisodium phosphate is widely used in cleaning
  agents to soften water and for preventing
  pipe/boiler tube corrosion.
• White phosphorus is used in military
  incendiaries, smoke pots, smoke bombs and tracer
  bullets.
• Miscellaneous uses used in the making of safety
  matches, pyrotechnics, pesticides, toothpaste,
  detergentsetc.

64
Phosphates

• The experimental alum-dosing facility for Fish
  Lake was not operated in 2001 after contributing
  last year to the best average water clarity (6.8
  feet) in Fish Lake since 1982. In 2001, the City
  collected field data to determine additional
  effects of the operation while investigating
  short- and long-term operation and maintenance
  strategies. The facility injects alum, a compound
  that inactivates phosphorus, into the major
  stormwater trunk to the lake. Phosphorus is the
  leading nutrient contributing to algae growth in
  lakes.

65
Phosphate is component of teeth and bones.
apatite is Ca5(PO4)3(OH,F,Cl About a 100
different minerals contain phosphate. One is
turquoise. CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)85(H2O), Hydrated
Copper Aluminum Phosphate
The Shocking History of Phosphorus tells the
human stories to be found in the history of this
element in the 300 years since its discovery. The
book includes tales of the alchemist who first
found it, the doctors who prescribed it as a cure
for most ailments including male impotence, the
famous match-girls and their strike, the
Salvation Army's struggle to ban it, Operation
Gomorrah which reduced its birthplace to rubble,
the industry which made it and the fishy end it
came to, the use of phosphorus to make food
additives and detergents and the pollution they
caused, spectacular accidents, the role assigned
it by Nature, and finally its release as
phosphane and diphosphane gases as the possible
explanation of various supernatural phenomena.
66
Arsenate

• Arsenic is chemically very similar to its
  predecessor phosphorus, so much so that it will
  partly substitute for it in biochemical reactions
  and is thus poisonous. It is in the same group
  as phosphorus.

-3
-3
-
-
O
O
As
O
As
O
O
-
-
O
O
-
-
Metal salts of arsenate are used as
insecticides Calcium, lead, or copper arsenate.
Potassium or sodium arsenite
67
arsenate

• An arsenic atom will readily combine with four
  oxygen atoms to form the arsenate molecule. The
  arsenate molecule is a chemical look-alike to the
  phosphate molecule, similarly formed from
  phosphorous and oxygen. Phosphorous is an
  important element for living organisms. It forms
  nerve tissue, bones and teeth. Also, it makes up
  a part of the membrane tissue that surrounds
  living cells and transports the energy that fuels
  muscle contraction.
• The cells recognize the shape of the phosphate
  molecule and readily absorb it. Unfortunately,
  the shape of arsenate is so nearly identical that
  cells do not distinguish between arsenate and
  phosphate. Thus, if substantial concentrations of
  arsenate are provided to the body, the damaging
  arsenate is taken into cells instead of the
  phosphate which the cells need. This substitution
  of the bad for the good perhaps explains why
  arsenic poisoning can retain its latency over the
  years, especially in children since their bodies
  are rapidly growing.

68
Arsenate (arsenic yellow pigment)

• Roger Smith, Professor of Pharmacology and
  Toxicology Emeritus, Dartmouth Medical School,
  has stated that natural arsenic contamination of
  drinking water has been a problem in wells in
  Bangladesh and New Hampshire. The Bangladesh well
  poisoning is a particularly difficult problem
  millions of people take their drinking water from
  wells that were drilled through arsenic-bearing
  rock layers. Chronic low level arsenic poisoning
  as in Bangladesh results in the victim developing
  cancer.
• There is a theory that Napoleon Bonaparte
  suffered from arsenic poisoning, and samples of
  his hair did show high levels of the element.
  This, however, does not imply deliberate
  poisoning by Napoleon's enemies Copper arsenate
  has been used as a pigment in some wallpapers,
  and microbiological liberation of the arsenic
  into the immediate environment would be possible.
  The case is equivocal, in the absence of clearly
  authenticated samples of the wallpaper.
• Even without contaminated wallpaper, there are
  many other routes by which he could have picked
  up arsenic arsenic was used medicinally for
  centuries and, in fact, was used extensively to
  treat syphilis before penicillin was introduced
  it was replaced for treating other conditions by
  sulfa drugs and then by antibiotics. Arsenic was
  an ingredient in many tonics (or "patent
  medicines"), just as coca (unrefined cocaine) was
  an ingredient in Coca-Cola when it was
  introduced.
• A later case of arsenic poisoning is that of
  Claire Booth Luce, the American ambassador to
  Italy in the years just following World War II
  she suffered an increasing variety of physical
  and psychological symptoms until arsenic
  poisoning was diagnosed, and its source traced to
  the old, arsenic-laden flaking paint on the
  ceiling of her bedroom. Another source
  (http//www.dartmouth.edu/toxmetal/TXSHas.shtml)
  explains her poisoning as resulting from eating
  food contaminated by flaking of the ceiling of
  the embassy dining room. She did not die from her
  poisoning.
• (chemotherapy) Arsenic trioxide has been used in
  hematology to treat patients with acute
  promyelocytic leukemia that are resistant to ATRA
  treatment

69
Cyanide
Hydrogen cyanide gas
-1
N
C
-
C
N
-
N
N
Gas chambers used a pesticide called Zyklon B,
which decomposed to HCN. First used to delouse
and for Typhus.
Fe4Fe(CN)63 This is Prussian blue (German
uniforms.
70
printing inks, paints, typewriter ribbons, and in
carbon paper.
Prussian (PRUSH-en) blue is used to treat
thallium poisoning and radiocesium poisoning. It
works by combining with thallium and radiocesium
in the intestines. The combination is then
removed from the body through the stools. By
removing the thallium or radiocesium, the
medicine lessens damage to your body's organs and
tissues.
Potassium ferrocyanide (K4Fe(CN)63H2O), also
known as yellow prussiate of potash, is a
coordination compound forming lemon-yellow
monoclinic crystals at room temperature and
decomposing at its boiling point. It is insoluble
in alcohol but a litre of water can dissolve just
under 300g of the crystals, and the solution can
be reduced with acid to release cyanide gas. The
resulting hydrogen cyanide (HCN) boils at 26C
and, being lighter than air, quickly evaporates
clear of the release point. On February 20, 2002
four Moroccans were arrested while in possession
detailed maps of the US embassy in Rome, the Rome
water supply network, and four kilograms of
potassium ferrocyanide
71

• Certain rare plants containing cyanide include
  apricot pits and a type of potato called cassava.
  The supposed cancer-fighting substance called
  laetrile (made from apricot pits) used to be sold
  to desperate cancer patients by unscrupulous
  individuals. Ironically, laetrile, in addition to
  being useless against cancer, can also lead to
  cyanide poisoning. Fortunately, only chronic or
  massive ingestion of any of these plants can lead
  to serious poisoning.
• Laetrile and bitter almond have been associated
  with serious toxicity and are considered to be
  unsafe because of their potential to cause
  cyanide poisoning. Symptoms of cyanide poisoning
  in people who used laetrile have included
  headache, dilated pupils, seizures, muscle
  spasms, difficulty breathing, metabolic
  abnormalities, shock, coma and death. Other
  adverse effects from high doses of bitter almond
  or laetrile include dizziness, confusion,
  drooping of the eyelids, muscle weakness, nausea,
  vomiting and rare types of anemia and other blood
  cell disorders. Drowsiness or sedation may occur.
  Use caution if you are driving or operating heavy
  machinery.
• Prunus species, including, apricots, cherries,
  almonds, and peaches, as well as apples. All of
  these seeds and pits contain amygdalin. You may
  have heard of amygdalin as a component of
  Laetrile, an "alternative" cancer treatment of no
  proven value that may be associated with cyanide
  poisoning. This harmless chemical lies inside the
  seed, but when the seed is moistened and crushed,
  it can be converted by bacteria in the intestinal
  tract or by an enzyme within the seed into
  cyanide.

72

• Cassava is the third-most important food source
  in tropical countries, but it has one major
  problem The roots and leaves of poorly processed
  cassava plants contain a substance that, when
  eaten, can trigger the production of cyanide.
  Thats a serious problem for the 500 million
  people who rely on cassava as their main source
  of calories, among them subsistence farmers in
  Sub-Saharan Africa, said Richard Sayre, a
  professor of plant biology at Ohio State
  University. He and his colleague Dimuth
  Siritunga, a postdoctoral researcher in plant
  biology at the university, have created
  cyanogen-free cassava plants. A cyanogen is a
  substance that induces cyanide production.
  Their study appeared in a recent issue of the
  journal Planta. Cassava is a hardy plant it
  can remain in the ground for up to two years and
  needs relatively little water to survive. Its
  the key source of carbohydrates for subsistence
  farmers in Africa. But an unprocessed cassava
  plant contains potentially toxic levels of a
  cyanogen called linamarin. The proper
  processing of cassava drying, soaking in water,
  rinsing or baking effectively reduces cassavas
  linamarin content. But, said Sayre, shortcut
  processing techniques, which are frequently used
  during famines, can yield toxic food products.
  In Africa, improperly processed cassava is a
  major problem. Its associated with a number of
  cyanide-related health disorders, particularly
  among people who are already malnourished.
  Chronic, low-level cyanide exposure is
  associated with the development of goiter and
  with tropical ataxic neuropathy, a nerve-damaging
  disorder that renders a person unsteady and
  uncoordinated. Severe cyanide poisoning,
  particularly during famines, is associated with
  outbreaks of a debilitating, irreversible
  paralytic disorder called Konzo and, in some
  cases, death. The incidence of Konzo and tropical
  ataxic neuropathy can be as high as 3 percent in
  some areas. People who get little or no protein
  in their diets are particularly susceptible to
  cyanide poisoning, as they lack the proper amino
  acids necessary to help detoxify the poison.

Ingested cyanide is converted to thiocyanate in
the body, thus urinary thiocyanate gives a
measure of cyanide intake over the preceding few
days. We have developed Kit D1 (Haque and
Bradbury, 1999b) for determination of thiocyanate
in urine, which was successfully trialled in
Mozambique in October 1999 (Ernesto et al.
2002a). There is a stepwise procedure Protocol D1
for the use of this kit. These kits are available
free of charge to health workers and
agriculturalists in developing countries.
73
Oxalate

• Oxalic acid occurs naturally in quite a large
  number of plants. The human body also synthesizes
  oxalic acid from ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).
  Oxalic acid may combine with calcium, iron,
  sodium, magnesium, or potassium to form less
  soluble salts known as oxalates. Oxalates also
  occur naturally in plants.
•    Since oxalic acid binds with important
  nutrients, making them inaccessible to the body,
  regular consumption of large amounts of foods
  high in oxalic acid over a period of weeks to
  months may result in nutrient deficiencies, most
  notably of calcium.
•    Oxalic acid is a strong acid, and is
  irritating to tissue all by itself. Extremely
  high doses are fatal. Oxalates, on the other
  hand, form tiny little insoluble crystals with
  sharp edges, which are also irritating to tissue.
  So, high levels of oxalic acid/oxalates in the
  diet lead to irritation of the digestive system,
  and particularly of the stomach and kidneys. They
  may also contribute to the formation of kidney
  stones (the most common form of kidney stone is
  composed of calcium oxalate).
•    Foods containing these chemicals may be
  consumed in moderation. However, if you suffer
  from kidney disease, kidney stones, rheumatoid
  arthritis, or gout, it is usually recommended
  that you avoid foods that are high in oxalates or
  oxalic acid. Foods generally found on the list
  include chocolate, cocoa, coffee, most berries
  (especially strawberries and cranberries), most
  nuts (especially peanuts), beans, beets, bell
  peppers, black pepper, parsley, rhubarb, spinach,
  swiss chard, summer squash, sweet potatoes, and
  tea.
•    Plant foods with high concentrations of oxalic
  acid (over 200 ppm) include (but are not limited
  to) lamb's-quarter, buckwheat, star fruit, black
  pepper, purslane, poppy seeds, rhubarb, tea,
  spinach, plantains, cocoa and chocolate, ginger,
  almonds, cashews, garden sorrel, mustard greens,
  bell peppers, sweet potatoes, soybeans,
  tomatillos, beets and beet greens, oats, pumpkin,
  cabbage, green beans, mango, eggplant, tomatoes,
  lentils, and parsnips.

74

• Dieffenbachia is a genus of tropical monocots
  with patterned leaves, also called dumb cane.
  Some members of this genus are grown as
  houseplants.
• Their sap is thick and contains huge quantities
  of needle-shaped calcium oxalate crystals. When
  chewed or even just touched, the sap causes
  swelling and a burning sensation, and a temporary
  inability to speak. This is why it is called dumb
  cane. It can cause death if the swelling blocks
  the airway.
• Slaves were sometimes punished by having
  dieffenbachia put into their mouths.
• If you have this plant in your house or yard,
  wash your hands after handling it.