Race in Sport

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Race in Sport

• SS 271
• Jack C. Watson II

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Topical Outline

• Discussion Question
• Definitions
• History of Race in Sport
• Reasons for Racial Differences
• Racial Discrimination in Sport
• Topical Review

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Sport Provides a Sanctuary Whereby Racial
Problems and Tensions do not Exist!!
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Definitions

• Race social category constructed and accepted by
  society to describe members with genetic
  similarity
• Socially constructed
• Based on physical attributes
• Categories for division are not fixed
• Varies by society
• Grandparents way back
• Race divides us, us and them

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What race am Ihum.?

• 1/4 African American
• 1/4 Thai
• 1/4 Chinese
• 1/8 Native American
• 1/8 White European
• Old rationale black
• Brazil white

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Definitions

• Ethnicity Cultural heritage of a group
• Not biological
• Shared culture
• Language/dialect
• Religion
• Customs
• History
• Both race and ethnicity serve to mark groups

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Definitions

• Racial-Ethnic Group Possess similar social and
  economic conditions, because of cultural labeling
  as a race. Common culture develops
• African American, Asian American, Native American
• Institutional Racism Common practices in society
  that systematically hurt one group more than
  another
• Practices that perpetuate racism, even when
  individuals are not racist
• Schools Banks
• Law Jobs

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Example of Institutional Racism

• Proposition 48
• 2.0 GPA (11 courses)
• 700 SAT
• Resulted from embarrassing events (SMU,
  Oklahoma,)
• Attempt to increase faith in NCAA
• 1984
• Would have disqualified 54 of black Footballers
  who went on to graduate
• Would only have disqualified 9 of whites

• Proposition 16
• 2.5 GPA (13 courses)
• 800 SAT
• Sliding Scale
• 2.0 GPA with 900 SAT
• Replaced Prop 48
• 85 of those losing eligibility were black
• Why?
• Real problems are with tests and educational
  systems in specific areas
• Dove Test of Intelligence

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Definitions

• Minority Group Members share common group
  characteristics, and suffer from discrimination
• Power imbalance
• Unemployment
• Family income
• Home ownership
• HS graduation rates
• Medical insurance
• Arrests

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History of African American Involvement in Sport

• Pre Civil War
• Were allowed to box, and ride horses
• Post Civil War
• Sport was still segregated. Inroads in boxing
  and horse racing that lasted until 20th century
• Early to Mid 20th century
• Barred from baseball, basketball and football
• Formed own leagues

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History of African American Involvement in Sport
(cont)

• Mid 20th Century
• Jackie Robinson (1947)
• Began to be allowed to play in college and pros
• Often exploited by college and professional
  programs
• Watershed Years
• Current Times
• Minority players sign smaller contracts
• Many players signed, but few play in majors
• Leagues becoming stocked with foreign players
• Minority players must be better than Caucasian
  players to make teams

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African American Participation in Sport (2000)
12-13

• 78 of NBA player
• 67 of NFL
• 13 of MLB
• 2 in NHL
• Why is this occurring?
• Race/genetic differences?
• Cultural differences?
• Social differences?

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Explanations for Elevated Numbers of AAs in Sport

• Genetic Reasons
• Race in US has been joined
• Only six genes are linked to color
• Can we really eliminate social and cultural
  differences?
• Kenyans are excellent distance runner, Nigerians
  are better sprinters
• Making success seem natural, takes away from
  effort
• Perpetuates social beliefs (e.g., work habits,
  intelligence, physically superior)

• Cultural Reasons
• Physical skills are more highly valued in AA
  culture
• Little evidence supports this
• Greater emphasis is placed on different
  activities between cultures (not just between
  races) (i.e., more variability between culture
  than race).

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Social Structural Constraints

• Occupational Constraints
• African Americans may view sport as being one of
  the few avenues to be successful in US society
• Many athletic role models
• Opportunity Structures (i.e., the facilities and
  resources available to them) space, money, ...
• Differences between stereotypical white and black
  basketball players

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Racial Discrimination in Sport

• Stacking (Loy and McElvogue)
• Whites found in thinking and outcome control
  positions
• Whites found in central positions
• Blacks found in speed positions
• Blacks found in reacting positions (defense)
• Requirements for participation are higher for
  Blacks

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Stacking in the NFL of White Players
of Black
Players 1983 1990 1991 1992
1993 1990 1991 1992 OFFENCE
Quarterback 99 92
92 94 1 8
8 6 Running Back 12
7 8 7
88 90 90 92
Wide Receivers 23 14
10 11 77 86
89 88 Center
97 87 89 76
3 13 10 19
Guard 77 76
67 62 2 24
31 35 Tight End
52 49 49 39
48 51 51 59
Tackle 68 71
60 50 32 29
31 46 Kicker
98 97 88 83
2 0 0
7 DEFENCE Cornerback 8
4 4 2 92
96 96 98 Safety
43 17 20
12 57 83 80
88 Linebacker 53 31
29 28 47 66
68 71 Defensive End 31
28 28 26
69 72 70 73
Defensive Tackle 47 50
44 30 53 50
54 67 Defensive Back
0 0 6 5
0 0 94 95
Nose Tackle 0 0
42 35 0 0
49 60 Punter
0 0 92 85
0 0 3 10 58
of all players in the NFL are Black 30 of all
players in NFL are White
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Results of stacking (see Table 13.2)

• Promote belief of white supremacy
• Longer careers for whites
• Decreases coaching opportunities (see Table 13.3)
• Blacks make less money
• Blacks moved from central positions in H.S. and
  College

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Struggle for Equality

• Two black athletes dominated American sports in
  the years prior to World War II Jesse Owens in
  track and field and Joe Louis in boxing. They
  made their statements for racial equality by
  proving themselves as athletes, but others turned
  to more direct forms of protest.
• For example, boxer Henry Armstrong hammered away
  at discrimination in the 1930s and 1940s by
  refusing to fight at segregated arenas.

• Another example of protesting occurred in the
  1940s when the students at New York University
  launched a protest against racial discrimination
  in collegiate athletics that gained national
  recognition and support to eradicate the color
  line in intercollegiate sports.

Henry Armstrong
Joe Louis
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Struggle for Equality

• In professional basketball, Chuck Cooper and
  Sweetwater Clifton came into the National
  Basketball Association in 1950.
• That year also marked an important first in
  tennis when Althea Gibson became the first
  African American woman to compete in the National
  Championships.
• In the 1960s Wilma Rudolph and Wymoia Tyus won
  international acclaim for African American women
  in track.

• America's entry into World War II in December
  1941 had a huge impact on the color line in
  sports.
• In this period, Satchel Paige and his Negro
  Baseball All-Star Team were given the opportunity
  to play the major league champions of baseball.
• The number of African American athletes in
  predominantly white collegiate conferences
  increased.
• Integration of sports continued after the war
  ended in 1945. In 1947 Jackie Robinson broke the
  color line to become the first black player in
  major league baseball.

Althea Gibson
Wilma Rudolph
Curt Flood
Chuck Cooper
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Struggle for Equality

• In the 1968 Olympics, two black track and field
  runners, John Carlos and Tommie Smith, made a
  controversial stand against racism in the U.S. At
  the medal ceremony, Smith and Carlos stood on the
  platform wearing black socks w/o shoes and Smith
  wore a black scarf around his neck. When the
  National Anthem was played Smith and Carlos
  raised a gloved fist in the black power salute.
  Because of their actions the Olympic Committee
  barred them from competing in other events.
  Instead of receiving a celebration of their
  achievements, they were subjected to death
  threats and their actions were the subject of
  widespread debate.

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Prominent Black Athletes
Arthur Ashe was the first African American to win
the mens U.S. National Tennis League. While a
student at UCLA, he won the NCAA singles and
doubles championship. Ashe wrote a history of
black athletics in America called a Road To Glory
(1987). Ashe died from pneumonia brought on by
the AIDS virus.
Arthur Ashe
Marshall Major Taylor was the cyclist who won
the 1-mile cycling championship in 1899, 1900,
and 1901. Marshall W. Taylor was the second black
champion in any sport.
Marshall Taylor
Jack Johnson became the worlds first African
American heavyweight champion in 1908 in a bout
with Tommy Burns. He held the title for 7 years.
In 47 years of fighting, he was only knocked out
3 times.
Jack Johnson
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Prominent Black Athletes
One of 15 black jockeys in 1875 at the first
Kentucky Derby. Lewis rode a horse named
Aristides. They won the Kentucky Derby. Set an
American record for the 1.5 miles.
Oliver Lewis
Was the last black jockey to win the Kentucky
Derby. Winkfield rode in 4 consecutive Derbys
from 1900-1903. He took first place in both
1901 and 1902 He came in third in 1900 and
second in 1903. In 1903 he left the U.S. for a
racing career in Europe.
Jimmy Winkfield
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Jackie Robinson

• As one of the first black professional baseball
  players, Jackie Robinson withstood a constant
  barrage of racism, from fans and players alike,
  in order to pave the path for other minorities.
• Even though the NFL and Major League Baseball
  (MLB) are among the most integrated workplaces on
  the field, Jackie Robinsons second dream, "to
  have the front offices, and people who run and
  manage our teams, be open to people of color" has
  yet to be realized
• The color barriers may be broken on the playing
  field, but on the sidelines the hurdles are still
  an ever-present obstacle for black head-coaching
  candidates.

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The Negro Leagues

• At the turn of the century, Rube Foster, a star
  pitcher for several African American teams,
  envisioned a baseball league for blacks that
  would rival the white major league, eventually
  forcing full recognition and inclusion of African
  American ballplayers.
• With partner John Schorling, Foster formed in
  1911 the Chicago American Giants, setting the
  foundation for the creation of a black baseball
  league. In February 1920, Foster founded the
  Negro National League (NNL) with the
  owners/representatives of Indianapolis ABCs, the
  Chicago Giants, the Kansas City Monarchs (owned
  by white promoter J.L. Wilkinson), the St. Louis
  Giants, the Detroit Stars, and the Cuban Stars.

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• As the first enduring professional sports league
  managed by African Americans, the NNL was widely
  successful. In 1923, the Eastern Colored League
  (ECL) was formed by white booking agent Nat
  Strong, leading to a feud with the NNL. Tensions
  were alleviated in 1924, however, when owners in
  each league agreed to a system based on the major
  league, with split schedules and the two best
  teams meeting for a black World Series.
• Both leagues failed after Fosters leadership was
  cut short by mental illness in 1926 and his death
  in 1930. The ECL folded in 1928, and NNL
  followed in 1931. In 1932 black baseball thrived
  mainly in the Southern Negro League and in Latin
  America, where great ball players were welcome,
  regardless of race.

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Jesse Owens
Owens tied the world record for the 100-yard
dash, broke world records in the long jump,
220-yard dash, and the 220-yard hurdles at OSU
in 1935.
In Berlin, Germany at the 1936 Olympics, Owens
won 4 gold medals for the U.S.
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Prominent Black Athletes
Muhammad Ali, The Louisville Lip, fought in a
total of 61 bouts. Out of those 61, 37 were
knockouts, 19 were wins, 4 were losses, and only
once was he knocked out by an opponent.
Muhammad Ali
Carl Lewis has won 10 Olympic Medals. 9 of which
are Gold, 1 silver. He has won in the 100m, 200m,
4X100, but is predominantly known for his long
jumping skills. Some other accomplishments
include World Athlete of the decade for the 80s
and Olympic Athlete of the Century.
Carl Lewis
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Black Women Track Superstars
Wilma Rudolph overcame polio in her childhood and
won 3 Gold Medals (100m, 200m, and 4X100m relay)
at the 1960 Olympics.
Wilma Rudolph
Jackie Joyner-Kersee is generally considered as
the best all around female athlete in the world
and the all time greatest heptathlete. She has
won 3 Gold, 1 silver, and 1 bronze Olympic
medals. Kersee was the first woman to score 7,000
points in a heptathlon event.
Jackie Joyner-Kersee
Devers overcame a thyroid disorder (Graves
disease) that nearly resulted in her having both
feet amputated. She went on to win the Olympic
gold medal in the 100 meters in 1992 and 1996.
Gail Devers
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Name the teams!
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Mascots

• "I find Indian mascots offensive to my culture
  and demeaning to my familys struggles to
  overcome dispossession, poverty, and racism.
• Derek Jennings, member of the Quapaw Nation,
  graduate of Dartmouth Colleges American Indian
  Studies Program.

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Mascot Quotes

• "Ignorance and stereotypes only hinder efforts to
  bridge cultural and racial divides and should be
  challenged at every turn. Gary Sandefur,
  Professor of Sociology, UW-Madison, former
  Interim Provost, UW-Madison.
• "Mascots are like a slap in the face", Richard
  Loud Bear, member of the Menominee Nation.

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Topical Review

• Definitions
• History of Race in Sport
• Reasons for Racial Differences
• Racial Discrimination in Sport