MEXICO

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MEXICO
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I. Sovereignty, Authority, Power

• Legitimacy
• Viceroy Governor appointed by Spanish king
  during colonial period
• Centralized, authoritarian rule with virtually no
  participation by the indigenous population

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A. Legitimacy Continued

• Revolution of 1910-1917 Mexicans have admired
  revolutionary leaders throughout their history.
  Revolutions in general are seen quite positively,
  and charisma is highly valued as a leadership
  characteristic
• Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) helped
  legitimize the revolution, served as an important
  source of government legitimacy until the late
  20th century
• Constitution of 1917 created a democratic,
  three-branch government, but allowed the PRI to
  stabilize and consolidate power within the hands
  of its leaders.

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II. Historical Traditions

• Authoritarianism from Spanish colonial
  structure and strong-armed tactics of
  military-political leaders (caudillos) such as
  Porfirio Diaz, Mexico has long tradition of
  authoritarian rule. President currently still
  holds a great deal of power.
• Populism revolutions of 19th and 20th century
  had significant peasant base led by charismatic
  leaders that called for more rights for ordinary
  Mexicans, particularly indigenous citizens.
  Zapatista movement is reflection of this
  tradition

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Historical Traditions continued

• Power Plays/Divisions within Elite elites who
  led dissenters during 1810 1910 revolutions
  warlords caudillos of the early 20th century
  and the politicos tecnicos of the late 20th
  century
• Instability and Legitimacy Issues Mexicos
  political history full of chaos, conflict,
  bloodshed, and violent resolution to political
  differences. Even though most Mexicans believe
  the government is legitimate, the current regime
  still leans toward instability

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III. Political Culture

• National Identity Mexicans share a strong sense
  of national identification based on common
  history, dominant religion and language
• Importance of religion (Catholicism)
• Patron-clientelism (You scratch my back, Ill
  scratch yours)
• Economic dependency

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IV. Geographic Influence

• Mountains Deserts make communication and
  transportation difficult promotes regionalism
  limits areas where productive agriculture is
  possible
• Varied Climates cold, dry mountains to tropical
  rain forests because of Mexicos varying terrain
  and long expanse from North to South
• Natural Resources petroleum, silver, copper,
  gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber
• U.S.-Mexican Border 2,000 mile long border
  means relationships are inevitable (migration,
  dependency, conflict)

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V. Population

• Over 100 million people in Mexico
• 60 Mestizo
• 30 Amerindian (Indigenous)
• 10 other (European, Asian, etc.)
• Most populated Spanish-speaking country in the
  world
• 75 of Mexicos population live in urban areas
  (Mexico Citys population is 18 million)
• Population in northern part of Mexico more
  prosperous than central southern Mexico.
  Farther south you go the greater the poverty of
  the people.

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VI. Colonial Era (colonialism)

• Cultural Heterogeneity Spanish took control
  over numerous indigenous populations dominated by
  the Aztecs once they conquered Tenochtitlan
• Mestizo ethnic mixture of two peoples (European
  indigenous)
• Catholicism most Spaniards settled in or near
  Mexico city, but Spanish priests settled
  throughout Mexicos hinterland converting the
  population to Christianity. Priests developed
  strong relationships with the people of Mexico
• Economic Dependency all trade done with Spain
• Spanish Hierarchy elaborate political social
  status hierarchy structure

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VII. Independence MEXICO

• Instability Legitimacy Issues Spanish left
  and took hierarchy structure with them,
  reorganizing government was difficult task,
  Mexico had 36 presidents from 1833-1855
• Rise of Military Instability led to military
  control, ex. Santa Anna
• U.S. Domination US challenges Mexican land
  claims, Mexican-American War (1846-1848), Treaty
  of Guadelupe Hidalgo (US gets TX, NM, CA, AZ, UT,
  part of CO)
• Liberals vs. Conservatives Constitution of 1857
  based on democratic principles. Liberal president
  Benito Juarez liberalizes Mexico. Conservatism
  reflected in joint French, Spanish, and English
  takeover of Mexico under Maximilian (1864-1867).
  After Maximilians execution Juarez brought back
  to power but liberal/conservative struggle would
  continue

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The Porfiriato

• Porfirio Diaz
• Military general under Benito Juarez
• Staged military coup in 1876
• Instituted himself as president of Mexico,
  promised he would serve no more than one term
• Ruled Mexico for 34 years with an iron hand
• Cientificos young, educated advisors of Diaz
  that believed in bringing scientific and economic
  progress to Mexico

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PORFIRIO DIAZ
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Influences of Porfiriato

• Stability Diaz dictatorship ended years of
  conflict and chaos
• Authoritarianism no sharing of political power
  beyond small, closed elite group
• Foreign Investment/Economic Growth cientificos
  encouraged entrepreneurship and foreign
  investment, primarily from the U.S., resulted in
  growth of business and industry
• Growing Gap between Rich Poor as a result of
  development and industrialization

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VIII. 20th Century

• Porfirio Diaz ousted in coup by other elites
  dissatisfied with Diaz rule and sensitive to the
  greed of the Porfirians
• Diaz abdicates to General Francisco Madero, a
  landowner from Coahuila
• Revolution of 1910 begins and warlordism and
  chaos would persist in Mexico until 1934

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Influences of the Mexican Revolution

• Patron-client System
• Constitution of 1917
• Conflict with Catholic Church
• Establishment of the PRI

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Mexican Revolution continued

• Patron-Client System in an effort to unseat
  Diaz, caudillos rose to challenge each other for
  power. Popular leaders Pancho Villa Emiliano
  Zapata emerged leading peasant armies. Around
  each leader a patron-client system emerged that
  involved large numbers of citizens
• Many caudillos were ultimately assassinated
  (including Villa and Zapata)
• Large numbers of followers were also killed in
  the competing world of the caudillos

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Constitution of 1917

• Ended the Revolution
• Violence Political Assassinations continued
• Mexican constitution very long and easily amended
• Set up structure for Democratic Government
  (Political Institutions resemble those of the
  U.S.)
• Three branches of Government
• Competitive Elections
• Most public officials directly elected by the
  people

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Conflict with Church after Revolution

• Cristeros Rebellion (1920)
• Hundreds of Thousands Killed (Priests murdered)
• Liberals legally separate Church State, viewed
  church as a bastion of conservatism
• Forbid priests from voting
• Placed federal restrictions on church-affiliated
  schools (parochial schools)
• Suspended religious services
• Priests continue to lead rebellions after Liberal
  changes, contributes to chaos of 20th century

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Establishment of PRI

• After years of conflict, President Calles brings
  caudillos together for agreement in 1929
• Attempts to bring all caudillos under one big,
  umbrella political party
• Bring stability through the idea of passing
  around power from one leader to the next as
  presidency changed hands
• Sexenios president could only serve one 6-year
  term
• Other leaders would be given major positions in
  government to establish their influence
• PRI- institutionalized the revolution by
  stabilizing conflict between leaders

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IX. Cardenas Upheaval (1934-1940)

• Succeeded Calles as president
• Stabilized and Radicalized Mexican politics
• Gave voice to peasant demands from the Revolution
  of 1910
• Charismatic leader
• the Roosevelt of Mexico as labeled by American
  scholars

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Cardenas Changes

• Redistribution of Land land taken away from big
  landlords, foreigners and redistributed as ejidos
  collective land grants to be worked by
  peasants
• Nationalization of Industry foreign business
  owners kicked out of country, most industry put
  under control of the state. Ex PEMEX giant,
  government controlled oil company
• Investment in Public Works government builds
  roads, provides electricity, creates public
  services to modernize Mexico
• Encouragement of Peasant Union Organizations
  Cardenas welcomes their input in government, they
  form their own camarillas with leaders that
  represent their interests on presidents cabinet
• Concentration of Power in Presidency Cardenas
  stabilizes presidency, when his sexenio was up he
  peacefully let go of power

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Cardenas and ISI

• Cardenas strategy of state-led development known
  as Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)
• ISI
• Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced
  goods from foreign competition
• Government ownership of key industries
• Government subsidies to domestic industries
• Government takes lead in promoting
  industrialization (very little capital in private
  hands during this era)

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X. Tecnicos the Pendulum Theory

• Miguel Aleman becomes president in 1946
• Encouraged entrepreneurship
• Foreign investment
• Free-market strategies on exports
• Followed by president who returned to
  Cardenas-style reform
• Pendulum Theory back-and-forth effect in
  Mexican politics from socialist reform to
  free-market economic development and back again.
• By the 1970s the pendulum appeared to stop with
  the emergence of the tecnicos

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Tecnicos continued

• Tecnicos educated, business-oriented leaders
  usually with degrees in economics, political
  science, business, etc.
• Tecnicos in the PRI espouse the free-market
  approach to politics
• By the 1980s Mexico had settled into an economic
  approach based upon Neoliberalism
• Free markets
• Balanced budgets
• Privatization
• Free trade
• Limited government intervention in the economy

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Tecnicos Politicos

• By 1950s Mexico welcomed foreign investment
• GNP experienced spectacular growth until the
  1980s
• This Mexican Miracle based largely on huge
  supplies of natural gas oil
• Mexico became a model for LDCs everywhere
• Oil Bust of the early 1980s, plummeting price
  of oil sunk the Mexican economy and inflated the
  value of the peso
• This caused added political tension within the
  PRI
• Division between the politicos old style
  caciques who headed camarillas and the
  tecnicos began to grow wider

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XI. Citizens, Society, the State

• Traditionally Mexican citizens have interacted
  with government through patron-client system
• Because camarillas so interwoven in Mexican
  politics, most people have had some contact with
  government during their lives
• Clientelism has generally meant that the
  government had the upper hand through its ability
  to determine which interests to respond to and
  which to ignore
• Role of citizens in Mexico is changing as
  political parties have become competitive and
  democracy becomes more firmly entrenched

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XII. Cleavages

• Urban vs. Rural Mexicos political structure
  put into place in early 20th century when most of
  population was rural. PRI and patron-client
  system were intended to control large numbers of
  illiterate peasants in exchange for small favors
  from politicos. Today Mexico is 75 urban, with a
  literacy rate of about 90. Urban voters less
  likely to support PRI, more receptive to
  political and economic reform
• Mestizo vs. Amerindian only about 10 of
  Mexicans speak indigenous languages, but about
  30 consider themselves Amerindians. Amerindians
  marginalized, predominantly rural, and poor. This
  cleavage tends to define social class, with most
  of Mexicos wealth in the hands of the mestizo
  population.
• North vs. South north almost like a different
  country then the area south of Mexico City.
  Majority of educated citizens and Mexicos wealth
  lies in the north. Southern Mexico primarily
  populated by Amerindians, characterized and led
  by Zapatista Movement in Chiapas.

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XII. Cleavages

• Social Class
• Gini Coefficient is .50 (2006) (high economic
  inequality)
• Economic Divide translates to
• Higher infant moratality rates
• Lower levels of education
• Shorter life expectancy among poor
• Mexico has seen a growing middle class.
• Informal Economy- businesses not registered with
  the government. Has aided with growing middle
  class
• Middle and upper classes more likely to support
  PAN and are more likely to vote.

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XIII. Political Participation

• Historically characterized by revolution
  protest
• Mexican citizens have generally been subjects
  under authoritarian rule of the political elite
• Citizens sometimes benefited from patronage, but
  legitimate channels to policy-makers were few
• Today citizens participate through increasingly
  legitimate and regular elections

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XIV. Patron-Client System (Mexico)

• Roots in warlordism and loyalty to caudillos
  during 19th century
• Each caudillo had supporters in return for
  their loyalty he granted favors to them
• Establishment of Camarillas that still exist
  today
• Mexican citizens participate in government
  through formal informal mechanisms
• Emphasizes compromise among contending elites
• Behind the Scenes conflict resolution
• Distribution of political rewards to those
  willing to play by formal/informal rules of the
  game
• Keeps control in the hands of the elite
• Elite has upper hand in deciding who gets favors
  and who doesnt
• Patron-client system still very important in
  determining the nature of political participation
• Modernization and legitimate democracy tend to
  break up the patron-client system as networks get
  blurred in large population centers, and more
  formal forms of participation are instituted

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Camarillas

• Hierarchical network
• Exchange of offices and other benefits
• Within the PRI, up until the election of 2000,
  most positions within the presidents cabinet
  were filled by supporters or heads of camarillas
  that the president wanted to appease
• Peasants in camarillas received jobs, financial
  assistance, family advice, and even food
  shelter in return for votes for the PRI in the
  past

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Protests

• When citizens demands have gotten out of hand,
  the government generally responded by not only
  accommodating their demands, but by including
  them in the political process through cooptation
• Tlatelolco (1968) student protest led to a
  massacre by government troops. Next president
  recruited large numbers of students into
  government, increased spending on social services
• Zapatista Uprising (1994) Chiapas rebellion
  reminded Mexicans that some people still lived in
  appalling conditions, and poverty and lack of
  education were still serious problems

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Voter Behavior

• PRI era
• PRI controlled local, state, national elections
• Voting rates high because of patron-client system
• Election day festive, accompanied by free food,
  music, and celebratrions
• Corruption extensive
• Challengers easily defeated with tacos
  stuffed ballot boxes
• Post-PRI era
• Presence of competing parties, have existed since
  1930s, but no real legitimacy until 1994
• 78 of eligible citizens voted in 1994
• 64 voted in 2000
• Both much better than 49 of 1988 when PRI
  corruption was at its height

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Factors influencing Voters

• Age and Income
• Younger voters were more likely than older voters
  to support Vincente Foxs PAN, and older voters
  more likely to support the PRI
• 59 of all student voters chose PAN
• 19 voted for the PRI
• 50 of upper income voters chose PAN (Calderon)
  compared to 30 for Obrador, and 14 for Madrazo.
• Education
• The more educated voted for Fox and the PAN
• 60 of those with a college education voted for
  Fox
• 22 of college educated voted for Labastida, the
  PRI candidate
• Region
• PRI evenly supported throughout the regions of
  the country
• PAN received majority of its support from the
  north and center-west

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CIVIL SOCIETY

• Many groups who refuse to cooperate with the PRI.
• PRI practiced State Corporatism (state would not
  let a group challenge the government).
• Interest Groups divided into three sectors,
  (Labor, Peasants, and the Middle Class)
• Downfall of PRI started with Civil Society.

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XV. Political Institutions Mexico in Transition

• Mexico characterized by economic and political
  transition
• Authoritarianism under the PRI has been replaced
  by competitive elections, although political
  hostilities still exist
• Economic dependency and underdevelopment slowly
  being transformed as public policies have been
  supportive of a free market economy, yet a
  backlash against neoliberalism has continued
• Developed, Developing, or Less Developed,
  how do we classify Mexico?
• Regime type from corporatist structure to
  transitional democracy

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How Development is Measured

• GNP per capita estimate of a countrys total
  economic output divided by its total population,
  converting to a single currency, usually the U.S.
  dollar. Does not take into account what goods
  services can actually be purchased with local
  currency.
• PPP Purchasing Power Parity takes into
  account cost of living in a particular country
  figuring out what it costs to buy the same goods
  in different countries (Mexico is 9800 per year)
• HDI Human Development Index longevity,
  knowledge, income (Mexicos literacy rate is 94
  for men 90.5 for women, life expectancy is
  72.4 years for men and 78 years for women
• Economic Dependency a less developed country is
  often dependent on developed countries for
  economic support and trade. Balanced trade is
  generally the key, a country is said to be
  developing when it begins relying less on the
  stronger country to keep it afloat financially
• Mexico is in the middle in terms of its
  development, it is generally considered to be a
  developing country that has shown gradual
  improvement in all of its indices

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How Development is Measured

• Economic Inequality
• Economies usually benefit the wealthy first.
• Gap between the wealthy and the poor is widened.
• High Gini Coefficient (.50)
• Because indices in general are moving upward,
  Mexico is considered to be developing.

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Transitional Democracy

• Political Accountability
• Political Competition
• Political Freedom
• Political Equality
• Mexico has developed some democratic
  characteristics in recent years, but still has
  many distinctions present from its authoritarian
  history. Longevity of democratic practices is
  another way of determining whether a country is a
  stable democracy, usually 40 years or more.
  Mexico does not yet fit this description.

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XVI. Linkage Institutions

• Mexicos political parties, interest group, and
  media all worked to link Mexican citizens to
  their government
• During the PRI era all of this took place under
  the authority of the PRI party so a true civil
  society did not exist
• As democratization began and civil society began
  to develop, these structures were already in
  place, so activating democracy was easier than it
  would have been otherwise

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XVII. Political Parties

• Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)
• National Action Party (PAN)
• Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD)

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PRI

• In power from 1920-2000
• Founded by coalition of elites led by President
  Calles
• Originally elites agreed to trade favors and pass
  around power from one cacique to another
  (Sexenio)
• Corporatist structure interest groups woven
  into the structure of the party. Party has
  ultimate authority, but other voices heard by
  bringing interest groups under the umbrella of
  the party. Structure is not democratic, but
  allows for more input into government than other
  types of authoritarianism. Particularly since
  Cardenas peasant and labor organizations have
  been represented in the party and hold positions
  of responsibility
• Patron-client system party traditionally gets
  its support from rural areas where patron-client
  system is still in control. Patron-client system
  allowed the PRI to remain in control of Mexicans
  as long as majority of population was
  rural-based, this began to change in the late
  1980s

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PAN (Right of Center)

• Founded in 1939
• Represents business interests opposed to
  centralization and anti-clericalism
• PAN support strongest in the north
• PAN generally considered PRIs opposition to the
  Right
• PAN candidate Vicente Fox won 2000 presidential
  election, Felipe Calderon won 2006 election
• Platform
• Regional autonomy
• Less government intervention in the economy
• Clean fair elections
• Good rapport with Catholic Church
• Support for private and religious education

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PRD (Left of Center)

• PRD considered PRIs opposition to the Left
• Presidential candidate in 1988 1994 was
  Cuahtemoc Cardenas (son of Lazaro Cardenas)
• He was ejected from the PRI for demanding reform
  that emphasized social justice and populism
• In 1988 Cardenas won 31.1 of the official vote,
  and PRD captured 139 seats in the Chamber of
  Deputies (500 total)
• Many believe had it been an honest election
  Cardenas would have won
• PRD has been plagued by poor organization, lack
  of charismatic leadership, and most importantly
  the lack of an economic alternative to the
  market-oriented policies of the PRI PAN
• Andres Lopez Obrador, former mayor of Mexico
  City, was the PRD candidate for president in the
  2006 election. He lost by a slim margin to
  Calderon (PAN)

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Elections

• Citizens in Mexico directly elect the president,
  Chamber of Deputy Representatives, and Senators
  as well as most local state officials
• Elections are generally competitive, specifically
  in urban areas
• Members of congress elected through dual system
  of first-past-the-post and proportional
  representation
• Proportional representation was increased in a
  major reform law in 1986, a change that gave
  power to political parties that challenged PRI
  control
• Each of Mexicos 31 states elects three senators,
  2 are determined by majority vote, the other is
  determined by whichever party receives the second
  highest number of votes
• 32 senate seats are determined nationally through
  a system of proportional representation that
  divides the seats according to the number of
  votes cast for each party (128 Senate seats in
  total)
• In the Chamber of Deputies, 300 seats are
  determined by plurality within single-member
  districts, and 200 are chosen by proportional
  representation

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Voter Profiles

• PRI small town or rural, less educated, older,
  poorer
• PAN from the north, middle-class professional
  or business, urban, better educated (at least
  high school, some college) religious (or those
  less strict regarding separation of church
  state)
• PRD younger, politically active, from the
  central states, some education, small town or
  urban

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Election of 2000

• PAN/PRD candidate Vicente Fox won presidency (43
  of the vote compared to 36 garnered for PRI
  candidate Francisco Labastida)
• PAN captured 208 of 500 deputies in lower house
• PRI captured 209 deputy seats in the lower house
• PAN won 46 senate seats PRI won 60 senate seats
• New, competitive election system has encouraged
  coalitions to form to the right left of the PRI
• Split in votes has encourage gridlock, phenomenon
  unknown to Mexico under the old PRI-controlled
  governments
• Election of 2006 closely contested election,
  won by PAN candidate Felipe Calderon by narrow
  margin over PRD candidate Andres Lopez Obrador

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Electoral System

• First-Past-The-Post
• No run-off elections required
• Members of Congress elected FPP and Proportional
  Representation
• Each of Mexicos 31 states elects 3 Senators (two
  determined by majority and third by the party
  with 2nd highest number of votes.
• Lower House (Chamber of Deputies) has 300 seats
  determined by plurality within single member
  districts. 200 seats are chosen by proportional
  representation.

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Interest Groups Popular Movements

• Corporatist structure allowed for accommodation
  of interest group
• Business Interests networked with political
  leaders to protect the growth of commerce,
  finance, industry, and agriculture
• Labor accommodated within system, wage levels
  for union workers increased from 1940-1982, until
  economic crisis of lowering oil prices caused
  wages to drop. Power of union bosses has
  decreased as unions weaken and members become
  more independent
• Rural/Peasant Organizations encouraged under
  PRI through the ejido system that granted land
  from the government to these organizations. Since
  1980s groups have demanded greater independence
  from the government, and supported movements for
  better prices for crops, and access to markets
  and credit. Joined with other groups to promote
  better education, health services, and
  environmental practices
• Urban/Popular Movements concerned about social
  welfare spending, city services, neighborhood
  improvement, economic development, feminism, and
  professional identity. As groups become more
  independent and grow in strength the government
  and political system must negotiate with them,
  and in doing so transform the political culture

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Media

• Part of the patron-client system under the PRI,
  with rewards and favors doled out in return for
  political support
• Have become more independent as PRI-political
  structure has been reorganized
• Many Mexicans have access to international
  newspapers, magazines, CNN and the BBC
• Toallagate Scandal overpriced towels at
  President Foxs mansion
• Comes y te vas Fidel Castro-U.N. meeting
  incident

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XVIII. Government Institutions

• Mexico is a federal republic, though state and
  local governments have little independent power
  and few resources
• Executive branch has held majority of the power
  historically
• Legislative Judicial branch followed the
  executives lead, rubber-stamping most
  presidential decisions
• Mexico has traditionally been an authoritarian
  and corporatist regime

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Executive Branch

• Center of policy-making
• Sexenio non-renewable six-year term (Under PRI
  similar to dictator)
• Selected successor
• Appointed officials to all positions of power in
  the government
• Named PRI candidates for other public offices
• Until mid-1970s Mexican presidents were above
  criticism and people revered them as symbols of
  national progress and well-being
• Managed huge patronage system
• Control over rubber-stamp Congress
• President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000)
  relinquished number of traditional powers of the
  president, including naming the PRI candidate for
  the 2000 election
• President Fox inherited the presidency in a time
  of transition
• President still viewed as all powerful, but
  blamed for shortcomings
• Harder for Fox to accomplish political goals
  without strong party support in the post-PRI
  Congress

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Bureaucracy

• About 1.5 million people employed by federal
  government (Most in Mexico City)
• High Middle level officials have a good deal of
  power
• Under PRI corruption and bribes quite common
  amongst officials in the bureaucracy
• Parastatal Sector semiautonomous government
  agencies that often produce goods services
• PEMEX
• After 1980s oil bust reforms cut the number of
  para-statals, and many are now privately owned
• President Fox tried unsuccessfully to privatize
  PEMEX

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Legislature

• Bicameral
• Chamber of Deputies (500-member)
• 300 deputies from single-member districts
  (plurality)
• 200 deputies chosen by proportional
  representation
• Senate (128-member)
• 3 senators from each of the 31 states the
  federal district(96)
• Remaining 32 selected by proportional
  representation
• All legislators directly elected
• Until 1980s legislature remained under strict
  control of the president
• PRIs lost hold on legislature earlier than it
  did on the presidency
• Lost majority in the Chamber of Deputies in 1997
• Women in both houses has risen significantly
  since 1996 election law required parties to
  sponsor female candidates
• Parties must run at least 30 female candidates
  for proportional representation and single-member
  district elections
• 113 of 500 deputies in Chamber are female
• 20 of 128 Senators are also female

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Judiciary

• Strong judicial branch necessary for a country to
  operate on the Rule of Law
• Mexico does not have an independent judiciary or
  judicial review system
• Most laws are federal, limiting the authority of
  state courts
• Supreme Court
• On paper has judicial review, but it never
  overrules important government policy or actions
• Historically has been controlled by the executive
  branch
• Judges appointed for life, but in practice
  resigned at the beginning of each sexenio
• President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) attempted
  to strengthen courts by emphasizing the rule of
  law, he refused to interfere with court judgments
  and President Fox continued this policy
• Fox tried to work for an independent judiciary
  but seems to have come up short on this endeavor

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Military

• Dominated Mexican political life into the early
  20th century
• PRI dramatically cutback the political power of
  generals (even former military generals who
  became presidents acted to separate the military
  from politics)
• Calles and Cardenas de-politicized the military
• Continually moved generals to different regions
  of the country not allowing them to develop a
  regional base of power
• Presidents traded favors with military officers
  to allow them economic power, if not political
  power
• Government control of the military one of PRIs
  most important accomplishments
• Strong ties between military officers and drug
  barons
• Military heavily involved in drug-enforcement
• Patron-client system of favors and loyalty has
  led some military officers to accept money from
  drug lords in return for allegiance and security
• General Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo (Head of
  anti-drug task force) arrested in 1997 on
  accusations of protecting a drug lord

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XIX. Policies Issues

• Economy
• Mexican Miracle
• 1940-1960 economy grew more than 6 per year
• Industrial production up nearly 9 per year
  during 1960s
• Agricultural share of production down 25 to 11
• Manufacturing share of production up 25 to 34
• Problems
• Growing gap between rich poor
• Rapid/Unplanned Urbanization

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Economics II

• Debt Crisis
• Mexican government borrowed heavily in order to
  industrialize
• Most of the economic growth based on oil economy
• Oil plummet in 1982, caused Mexican economy to
  plummet as well
• 1987, Mexico over 107 billion in debt, debt
  represented 70 of GNP

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Economics III

• Reform
• Begun by President Miguel de la Madrid in 1982,
  continued by presidents Salinas Zedillo (the
  tecnicos)
• Sharp cuts in Government Spending according to
  agreements with the IMF, World Bank, and the U.S.
  Mexico greatly reduced government spending by
  eliminating public enterprises, cutting
  government subsidies, and cutting hundreds of
  thousands of public jobs
• Debt Reduction with assistance from U.S. the
  Mexican government reached agreement to reduce
  interest rates on loans and allow for more
  lenient repayment plans. Mexico still pays on
  average about 10 billion a year on loan
  interests
• Privatization many government industries were
  privatized, in 1990 President Salinas returned
  the banks to the private sector. Special laws
  like duty-free importing of components and cheap
  labor led foreign companies to invest in Mexican
  manufacturing plants
• Between 2001 and 2003 Mexico economy suffered
  from the post-September 11 U.S. recession. In
  2004, the economy grew by 4.1 but an estimated
  40 of the Mexican population still lived below
  the poverty line

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Foreign Policy

• GATT/WTO in 1986 Mexico joined the General
  Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the precursor to
  the World Trade Organization
• NAFTA economics still dominates even in terms
  of foreign policy
• Immigration Drug Trafficking America still
  the key focus for Mexican foreign policy

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Issues of Democracy

• Election Reform
• CFE (Federal Election Reform) created as an
  independent regulatory body to safeguard honest
  and accurate election results
• Campaign Finance Restriction laws that limit
  campaign contributions
• International Watch Teams so Mexico could
  convince other countries that elections are fair
  and competitive
• Election monitoring done by opposition party
  members

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Foxs Legacy

• Pluralism
• Decentralization
• Electoral Reform
• Rule of Law
• Anti-Narcotics Policy

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Ya Basta Zapatista Movement Lives On (EZLN)

• EZLN began in 1994 in Chiapas in protest of the
  signing of the NAFTA treaty
• Viewed agreement as a continued exploitation of
  landowners and PRI bosses
• EZLN captured four towns demanding jobs, land,
  housing, food, health, education, independence,
  freedom, democracy, justice and peace
• Rebellion originally based on ethnicity
  Amerindian but spread to other factions of
  society
• Zapatista supporters were black ski masks to hide
  their identity from the government
• Although a moderate truce was announced with the
  government, the Fox administration was unable to
  negotiate a settlement to the dispute with the
  Zapatistas despite numerous efforts to do so
• Zapatistas represent the stance against all that
  is still wrong with Mexican politics

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PRESIDENT CALDERON