Vicarious Learning

1
Chapter 8

• Vicarious Learning

2
Vicarious Learning

• Observational learning
• Change in behaviour due to the experience of
  observing a model
• Anecdotal evidence
• Cats open cupboards, latches
• Dog open gates

3
Early Work on Vicarious Learning

• Thorndike
• Puzzle box
• Experienced model, naïve learner
• Animals dont learn by observation
• Many animals need to observe successes and
  failures

4
Not so simple

• Some behaviours may LOOK like observational
  learning, but arent
• Contagious Behaviour
• Social Facilitation
• Local/Stimulus Enhancement
• Affordances
• Mimicking/Imitation

5
Contagious Behaviour

• Species-typical behaviour is released when others
  perform the behaviour
• Test performance with model absent
• Example
• You may eat when youre already full if you are
  with others who are eating
• Same with animals

6
Social Facilitation or Interference

• Performance is changed based on the mere presence
  of others
• Get better at easy, well-trained tasks
• Get worse at difficult tasks
• Before/After tests, baseline, control group
• Example
• Performing better at competitions, shows,
  tournaments
• Slacking off at work
• Zanjonc cockroaches in easy difficult mazes

7
Local or Stimulus Enhancement

• Attraction to objects which others are using,
  then learn about object on own
• Attraction to locations where others have been
• Not learning from others, just attract attention
  to object
• Two-Action Tests
• Example
• A chimp is attracted to a stick that another has
  discarded. The attraction allows for learning
  experiences with the stick.

8
Affordances

• Actions of the model show the observer about the
  way the environment operates
• Model is not strictly necessary
• Two-Action with same affordance
• Example
• An observer watches a model push open a door and
  learns that the door swings outwards
• Model not necessary, a string pulling the door
  open could result in same conclusion

9
Mimickry or Imitation

• Copy-catting reproduction of observed
  behaviour
• Doesnt necessarily show learning!
• Outcome
• Example
• Dick Anne get to take a treat from one of two
  bowls
• One bowl contains good candy, one has yucky candy
• Dick reaches into the green bowl and gets the
  bad candy
• If Anne reaches into the green bowl, she has
  imitated but not learned!

10
Human Infants Imitation

• At what age can humans imitate?
• Metzolff Moore (1977)
• 12 to 21 day old infants
• Facial gestures tongue protrusion, mouth open,
  lip protrusion

11
Experiment

• Experimenter 90 sec passive face (baseline)
• Infant shown gesture four times
• Imitation-test period
• Video taped and scored by blind judges
• Supports imitation

12
(No Transcript)
13
Results
14
Infant Research

• Replication difficult
• Tongue protrusion elicited by other means
• Infants attention general arousal?
• Evolutionary advantage
• Observing and copying behaviour of parents,
  siblings, etc. may bring more attention
• Is it vicarious learning?

15
Generalized Imitation

• Dont see the outcome of the models behaviour,
  but the observer imitates anyway
• Prior experience with vicarious learning
• We learn that imitating others behaviour may
  provide reinforcement
• We generalize from one condition to another

16
Baer Sherman (1964)

• Children observe puppet
• Mouthing
• Head nodding
• Speaking nonsense
• Lever presses
• Imitation of first 3 behaviours reinforced
• All 4 behaviours imitated
• Stop reinforcement
• All 4 behaviours decrease (extinguish)

17
Vicarious Classical Conditioning

• Debate as to whether or not classical
  conditioning can be learned vicariously
• Does an observers behaviour change due to the
  observation of the models behaviour?
• Is the observer being directly classically
  conditioned when observing the model?

18
Haner Whitney (1960)

• Model has finger on shock-device observer
  watches
• Model removes finger when light is on
• Record GSR of observer
• Shock US
• Models behaviour UR
• Light CS
• Increased GSR CR of anxiety

19
Bernal Berger (1976)

• Observer watched video of eyeblink conditioning
  of model
• Tone paired with airpuff
• Recorded observers tendency to blink
• Observers acquire eyeblink CR to tone

20
But...

• In this study, could be higher-order classical
  conditioning
• Seeing someone blink might be a CS for blinking
  yourself
• Previously see people blink, if you blink you
  avoid aversive US
• Tone could be CS2 to previously learned CS1

21
Venn Short (1973)

• Baseline measure
• Watch video
• Boy shows fear or liking of Mickey Mouse toy over
  Donald Duck toy
• Key pressing for MMs

22
Observation of Conditioning

• No observation of CS-US pairing
• i.e. toy never paired with US
• Change in observers behaviour due to toy paired
  with reaction of model (fear or liking)
• basic classical conditioning
• not necessarily vicarious learning
• Similar to prejudice where US was
  positive/negative words
• US positive/negative reaction of model

23
Vicarious Operant Conditioning

• Some evidence that operant conditioning can be
  acquired through vicarious learning
• Important to distinguish from stimulus
  enhancement
• Observe models reinforcement or punishment

24
Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz Wolkin (1974)

• Children observed model look at paired pictures,
  indicating preferences
• Model received approval, disapproval, or neutral
  consequences
• Observers subsequent preferences were for the
  pictures that the models received approval for
  selecting

25
Dorrance Zentall (2001)

• Japanese quail
• Models trained to peck or step on treadle
• http//www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall/defaul
  t.htm
• Two-action method controls for stimulus/local
  enhancement
• Treadle always gets pressed down, so affordances
  are the same

26
Methods

• Observers watched one model either peck at or
  step on treadle
• Later tested in absence of model
• Not contagious behaviour or social facilitation

27
Variables affecting Vicarious Learning
28
Characteristics of the Model

• Authority
• Dominance
• Similarity
• Sincerity
• Attractiveness
• Venus Effect

29
Characteristics of the Learner

• Uncertainty
• Sex
• Age

30
Characteristics of the Situation

• Task uncertainty
• Task difficulty
• Presentation of model

31
Theories
32
Banduras Studies

• Bobo the Clown experiments
• Children as observers
• Watched various models demonstrating behaviours
• Consequences of models behaviour
• Availability of reward

33
(No Transcript)
34
Banduras Social Cognitive Theory

• Attentional processes
• Retentional processes
• Motor reproductive processes
• Incentive and motivational processes

35
Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory

• Vicarious learning as a variant of operant
  conditioning
• Observers behaviour changes due to consequences
  of observers behaviour
• Three steps
• 1. Learner observes behaviour of model
• 2. Learner copies response
• 3. Learner receives reinforcement

36
Possible Problems

• Absence of model
• Latent learning
• Delays in behaviour common
• Lack of reinforcement
• Generalized imitation

37
Comparison

• Banduras theory
• Innate processes, learning, and cognition
• Future expectations
• Reinforcement theory
• Behavioural operant conditioning
• Past experiences

38
Applications
39
Foraging

• Birds opening milk containers, pecking through
  creamers
• Stimulus enhancement?
• Foraging locations
• Local enhancement?

40
Television Violence

• National Television Violence Study (1998)
• 8000 hours of programming
• 7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years
• 60 of programs contained violence
• Less than 4 contained anti-violence message
• By age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders
  and over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV

41
Bandura et al (1963)

• 5 minute video of Rocky Johnny
• Johnny plays with toys
• Rocky asks to share, but Johnny says no
• Rocky beats Johnny up
• Rocky plays with toys
• Rocky puts all the toys in a sack and takes them
  home
• Watched how often children played aggressively
  (hit Bobo doll)
• One little girl asked for a sack

42
In real life

• Causal or Correlational
• Correlation does not show causation
• 3rd factor?

43
Developing Phobias

• Vicarious acquisition
• Prevalence in humans?

44
Treatment of Phobias

• Flooding
• Systematic desensitization
• Relaxation and shaping

45
Modeling Treatments

• Modeling
• Used with the very young
• Sometimes more rapid
• May be better at generalization
• Three types of phobia reduction modeling
• 1. Graduated modeling
• 2. Symbolic modeling
• 3. Participant modeling