Helping Students to Write Well

1
Helping Students to Write Well

• Critical Issues Forum
• Lisa S. Donohoe
• James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies

Sources Raimes, A. (1999). Keys for Writers, 2nd
Ed. Boston Houghton Mifflin Company. Hodges,
J.C., et al. (1994). Harbrace College Handbook,
12th Ed. Fort Worth, TX Harcourt Brace College
Publishers.
2
CIF Writing Assignments

• To show student mastery of content
• Not only to compile information, but to develop a
  premise or thesis
• To develop and demonstrate critical thinking

3
Benchmarks Examples for Writing

• Research why the earliest nuclear powers
  developed these weapons, e.g., the United States
  and Russia.
• Compare and contrast the motivations a country
  might have for wanting a nuclear weapon with
  those a non-state organization might have for
  using a nuclear or radiological device.
• Investigate the effects of nuclear weapons
  testing.
• Be able to relate ways that how the NPT
  promotes nuclear disarmament.

4
Benchmarks Examples for Writing

• Research the nuclear fuel cycle. Learn to relate
  the cycle to how nuclear weapons are produced.
• Research the sciences and technologies involved
  in nuclear weapons and how these scientific
  domains and technologies are used.
• Learn about non-governmental organizations, and
  examine whether they have an impact on
  governments nuclear weapons policies.

5
Building Blocks of Essay Writing

• Sentence
• Paragraph
• Essay Structure
• Thesis
• Purpose
• Logical head structure
• Organizational strategies
• Transitions

6
Basic Sentence Structures

• Simple sentence A sentence with one independent
  clause and no dependent clauses.
• Fuels from petroleum include ethane, diesel fuel,
  fuel oil, gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, liquid
  petroleum gas, and natural gas.
• Compound Sentence A sentence with multiple
  independent clauses but no dependent clauses.
• Potential energy is stored energy, and kinetic
  energy is energy in the form of motion.

Source The Owl at Purdue, http//owl.english.purd
ue.edu/owl/resource/606/01
7
Basic Sentence Structures

• Complex Sentence A sentence with one independent
  clause and at least one dependent clause.
• When petroleum is recovered, it is refined.
• Complex-Compound Sentence A sentence with
  multiple independent clauses and at least one
  dependent clause.
• Although petroleum is the resource relied upon
  the most, it can be harmful to the environment,
  and drilling can harm the land and the animals
  that live there.

8
Paragraph

• A collection of related sentences dealing with a
  single topic.
• A paragraph should contain
• Unity a single focus
• Coherence carrying same idea from sentence to
  sentence, parallel structure, transition words,
  etc.
• Topic Sentence idea or thesis the paragraph is
  going to be about
• Adequate Development supporting facts,
  definition of terms, cause and effect, analysis,
  etc.

Source The Owl at Purdue, http//owl.english.purd
ue.edu/owl/resource/606/01
9
Establishes a Controlling Idea

• Topic Sentence Main Idea
• As the first sentence
• Makes a generalization
• Serves as a reference point for
• rest of paragraph
• As the third or fourth sentence
• Focuses details
• Directs attention to main idea
• As the final sentence
• Summarizes or draws conclusions from details

10
Development

• Examples
• Story or anecdote
• Facts and statistics
• Definition of key terms, concepts
• Classification, categorization
• Comparison, contrast

11
May Use Deductive Reasoning

• Begin with a generalization (premise)
• Apply to specific instance
• Draw a conclusion

Generalization
Specific
Conclusion
12
May Use Inductive Reasoning

• Begin with specific facts or observations
• Add supporting examples
• Draw a general conclusion

Specific
Generalization
13
Arranges Ideas in Understandable Order

• Chronological order
• Narrate a series of events
• Spatial order
• North to south, near to distant, etc.
• Order of importance
• General to specific specific to general
• Question-answer
• Problem-solution
• Cause-effect
• Logical order (a process)
• A definition

14
Analysis Thought

• Strong thesis or position statement supported by
  the evidence
• Good use of factual information to support
  thesis, opinion
• Summarizing and synthesizing of information, not
  just cataloguing
• Drawing a conclusion from the information
  presented

15
Essay

• Purpose
• Persuasion
• Analysis
• Exposition
• Thesis
• Logical structure

Demonstrates student mastery of content
16
State Purpose

• INTRODUCTION
• The aim of my work was to produce definitions of
  space terminology, explore possible motivations,
  that drive people interest into space, develop my
  background knowledge of people interaction in
  space, possible ways of using it (civilian or
  military) and research some types of
  technologies, that could be necessary in learning
  and using space.

17
Purposes

• To analyze
• To argue/persuade
• To contribute to scholarly analysis
• To inform (expository)

18
To Analyze

• An analytical paper
• breaks down an issue or an idea into its
  component parts
• evaluates the issue or idea
• presents this breakdown and evaluation to the
  audience

19
To Explain

• An expository (explanatory) paper
• explains something to the audience
• How something works
• How something is organized
• A report on an event or situation

20
To Argue/Persuade

• An argumentative/persuasive paper
• makes a claim about a topic
• justifies this claim with specific evidence
• The claim
• opinion
• policy proposal
• evaluation
• cause-and-effect statement
• interpretation
• The goal to convince the audience that the claim
  is true based on the evidence provided.

21
Thesis or Question

• One- or two-sentence statement or question on the
  purpose
• Points toward the development or course of
  argument
• Is theoretically arguable
• Takes a side on an issue (argumentative)
• Or makes a hypothesis to be proved/disproved
  (analytical)
• Usually placed at end of introductory paragraph
  or multi-paragraph introduction

22
Thesis

• A case study
• The space programs of China and India
• The Beginnings
• TS1 India's space program took off in 1962 when
  the Indian National Committee for Space Research
  was set up to test rockets.
• TS2 The first (proof of concept) phase of the
  Indian space program was characterized by the use
  of foreign space systems
• TS3 The second phase was identified with a goal
  to derive an end-to-end experience in the
  realization of space systems
• TS4 As opposed to India, the potential military
  utility of space was the central reason for China
  embarking on its national space program

What information is missing? What will be
analyzed?
23
Thesis

• A thesis might tell us
• Why these two countries were chosen to compare in
  a case study.
• Why both countries embarked on a space program.
  (We get this info only about China.)
• What the similarities and differences are between
  the two programs.
• What we will learn by comparing these two space
  programs.

24
Thesis

• A thesis might tell us
• Why these two countries were chosen to compare in
  a case study.
• Why both countries embarked on a space program.
  (We get this info only about China.)
• What the similarities and differences are between
  the two programs.
• What we will learn by comparing these two space
  programs.

With a thesis, we can apply a thought process to
the information!
25
Structure
Introductory Paragraph or Section
States Thesis
Supporting Paragraph or Section
Supporting Paragraph or Section
Support the thesis with detail
Supporting Paragraph or Section
Restates the thesis, summarizes the points in the
previous paragraphs and draws a conclusion
Concluding Paragraph or Section
26
Transitions

• Transition A link from one idea, sentence, or
  paragraph to another
• Use of pronouns
• Repeated words, phrases, or ideas
• Conjunctions and other transitional expressions
• Parallel structures

27
Transitions, Cohesion

• Other important forms of energy include nuclear
  energy, which is released by means of fission or
  fusion of nuclei of atoms, thermal energy in
  which particles make up a mass of energy
  internally, and electrical energy, which is
  commonly known for powering appliances, lights
  and many more uses. These forms of energy are
  derived from different resources found on this
  planet and are needed to make things work.
• Sources of Energy
• The 2003 graph provided by the Energy Information
  Administration, as seen below, shows how
  petroleum (crude oil) is used and produced as the
  most used energy source.

28
Transitions, Cohesion
Concluding statement of paragraph leads into
following head and topic sentence of the first
paragraph in the following section.

• Other important forms of energy include nuclear
  energy, which is released by means of fission or
  fusion of nuclei of atoms, thermal energy in
  which particles make up a mass of energy
  internally, and electrical energy, which is
  commonly known for powering appliances, lights
  and many more uses. These forms of energy are
  derived from different resources found on this
  planet and are needed to make things work.
• Sources of Energy
• The 2003 graph provided by the Energy Information
  Administration, as seen below, shows how
  petroleum (crude oil) is used and produced as the
  most used energy source.

29
Transitions, Cohesion
Concluding statement of paragraph leads into
following head and topic sentence of the first
paragraph in the following section.

• Other important forms of energy include nuclear
  energy, which is released by means of fission or
  fusion of nuclei of atoms, thermal energy in
  which particles make up a mass of energy
  internally, and electrical energy, which is
  commonly known for powering appliances, lights
  and many more uses. These forms of energy are
  derived from different resources found on this
  planet and are needed to make things work.
• Sources of Energy
• The 2003 graph provided by the Energy Information
  Administration, as seen below, shows how
  petroleum (crude oil) is used and produced as the
  most used energy source.

30
Transitions Cohesion

• Other important forms of energy include nuclear
  energy, which is released by means of fission or
  fusion of nuclei of atoms, thermal energy in
  which particles make up a mass of energy
  internally, and electrical energy, which is
  commonly known for powering appliances, lights
  and many more uses. These forms of energy are
  derived from different resources found on this
  planet and are needed to make things work.
• Sources of Energy
• The 2003 graph provided by the Energy Information
  Administration, as seen below, shows how
  petroleum (crude oil) is used and produced as the
  most used energy source.

An indication of the organization that will be
used in the paragraph most used to least used.
31
Plagiarism Cutting and Pasting

• Plagiarism presents several problems.
• Students are presenting the work as their own
  when it is not their own.
• It is not a reflection of students thinking, but
  of someone elses thinking. No sign of student
  mastery.
• There are gaps in understanding and information,
  showing lack of mastery.

32
Gaps in Information and Understanding

• As he sought to develop opera-tional rockets,
  U.S. scientist Dr. Robert Goddard found in the
  early years of the 20th century that many people
  rejected his ideas as fantastic.
• On the first point
• On the second point
• No points were made, since they were left out of
  the cut and paste

33
Poor Integration of Content

• As the Cold War ended with the implosion of the
  Soviet Union the space race between the two
  superpowers ended. Besides, countries such as
  China, Japan, and India have begun their own
  space programs, while the European Union
  collectively works to create satellite systems to
  rival those of the United States.
• Besides, there appears to be no way currently
  that we can separate the need for a strong free
  world militarizing of space from the broader
  problems of international terrorism and military
  confrontations with what have been called rogue
  nations. Nevertheless, a precipitous, headlong
  rush toward an unquestioned and pervasive
  militarizing of near and deep space for
  defensive purposes, but with pre-emptive
  capabilities, could easily lead to an open and
  civilian use of space being relegated to a
  long-term backseat position particularly if
  constant and effective public scrutiny of the
  military space budget and research and operating
  plans are not ensured. /www.cosmos-club.org/
• Students have tagged on a weak topic sentence
  that does not lead to the conclusion.
• They have provided a reference, but no quotation
  marks.

34
Integrate Information into Own Thinking

• Paraphrase
• Synthesize
• Summarize
• Analyze

35
Paraphrase
Paraphrasing has to do with the sequence of
ideas, the arrangement of material, the pattern
of thought
Use your own words when you paraphrase, dont
just move things around
36
Synthesize Information

• Sometimes it is rather difficult to give a
  definition to the words, which we use in our
  everyday life. So, everybody knows what
  television, radio, the Internet, even space, the
  Universe are, but only few people can explain
  them competently. According to Longman Dictionary
  of English Language and Culture, Explanatory
  Dictionaries of the Russian Language, different
  books on astronomy and some Internet Recourses,
  see the sum of bibliography, we found out or
  created our own definitions of all space
  terminology that we may use in the CIF project.

37
Draw Conclusions

• After exploring different areas of the globe and
  their views on a controversial topic like nuclear
  energy, we have found that most nations believe
  its use is very beneficial. Saving money is the
  main argument in many counties, especially in
  destitute areas. Countries such as Russia and
  Venezuela are ruthless in their plans for
  expansion. They feel that it would save the
  environment because it emits very little carbon
  into the air as well as generate more money for
  their economy. However, people fail to recognize
  the dangers and risks involved with nuclear
  power. The more power plants there are, the more
  accident-prone we become. Numerous workers would
  need to be employed nevertheless we cannot
  ensure human perfection. The slightest mistake or
  human error could set off a series of chain
  reactions, causing the power plant to release
  radiation. The radiation released would take
  thousands of years to decay and become inactive.
  There is also the continual threat of nuclear
  weapons.

38
What Organizational Strategies Are Being Used?
39
By late afternoon the nuclear fuel, containing
sufficient highly enriched uranium (HEU) for
several nuclear bombs, had been loaded onto a
canvas-sided flatbed truck. The technicians and
scientists were shepherded into a nearby
building. For the next dozen hours, they waited
under heavy security, with strict orders not to
contact friends or family and perhaps
accidentally leak information about the impending
transport. Then, in the early morning hours of
August 22, 2002, at a time kept secret even from
participating American nuclear scientists, the
transport operation began. Project Vinca, a
multinational, public-private effort to remove
nuclear material from a poorly secured Yugoslav
research institute, was entering its final
phase. Philipp C. Bleek, Project Vinca Lessons
for Securing Civil Nuclear Material Stockpiles,
The Nonproliferation Review 10 (fall/winter
2003).
40
The lessons of Project Vinca fall into four broad
categories international politics, bureaucratic
politics, required capabilities, and the role of
nongovernmental actors. In the international
context, the Vinca case highlights the extent to
which dealing with vulnerable nuclear material
stockpiles hinges on persuading countries to
cooperate and hence requires occasional
engagement from the most senior U.S. officials.
Within the U.S. government, the inter- and
intra-agency friction that hampered the operation
highlights the need for a suitably equipped and
empowered lead official and office. The case also
makes clear the capabilities that office will
require, including the flexibility to negotiate
ad hoc compensation packages for countries
willing to give up nuclear materials. Finally,
Project Vinca illuminates the important role of
nongovernmental actors in setting the policy
agenda and prodding government to
action. Philipp C. Bleek, Project Vinca
Lessons for Securing Civil Nuclear Material
Stockpiles, The Nonproliferation Review 10
(fall/winter 2003).
41
Jonathan is an articulate, intelligent,
thirty-five-year-old man who has used a
wheelchair since he became a paraplegic when he
was twenty years old. He recalls taking an
ablebodied woman out to dinner at a nice
restaurant. When the waitress came to take their
order, she patronizingly asked his date, And
what would he like to eat for dinner? At the end
of the meal, the waitress presented Jonathans
date with the check and thanked her for her
patronage. Although it may be hard to believe the
insensitivity of the waitress, this incident is
not an isolated one. Rather, such an experience
is a common one for persons with
disabilities. ?Dawn O. Braithwaite, Viewing
Persons with Disabilities as a Culture
42
Ant queens, hidden in the fastness of well-built
nests and protected by zealous daughters, enjoy
exceptionally long lives. Barring accidents,
those of most species last 5 years or longer. A
few exceed in natural longevity anything known in
the millions of species of other insects,
including even the legendary 17-year-old cicadas.
One mother queen of an Australian carpenter ant
kept in a laboratory nest flourished for 23
years, producing thousands of offspring before
she faltered in her reproduction and died,
apparently of old age. Several queens of Lasius
flavus, the little yellow mound-building ant of
European meadows, have lived 18 to 22 years in
captivity. The world record for ants, and hence
for insects generally, is held by a queen of
Lasius niger, the European black sidewalk ant,
which also lives in forests. Lovingly attended in
a laboratory nest by a Swiss entomologist, she
lasted 29 years. ?Bert Hölldobler and Edward O.
Wilson, Journey to the Ants
43
By most measures, the five-year-old publication
Wired is doing very well. Known for its
unconventional neon designs and its editorial
position that technology correctly blended with
free-market capitalism will make for a freer,
happier world, Wired won a national magazine
award for general excellence this year.
Circulation hovers around 350,000. Advertising
pages are up 5 percent and ad revenue climbed,
too, in the first half of this year compared with
a year earlier, according to Adscope, an
advertising tracking service in Eugene,
Ore. ?Amy Harmon, Fast Times at Wired Hit a
Speed Bump
44
It may be well to consider some of the English
and Spanish cultural configurations before these
Europeans set foot on American soil. English
culture was basically insular, geographically and
ideologically as more integrated on the whole,
except for some strong theological differences
and was particularly zealous of its racial
purity. Spanish culture was peninsular, a
geographical circumstance that made it a catchall
of Mediterranean, central European, and north
African peoples. The composite nature of the
populations produced a market regionalism that
prevented close integration, except for religion,
and led to a strong sense of individualism. These
differences were reflected in the colonizing
enterprise of the two cultures. ?Arthur L. Campa