What is an argument

1
What is an argument?

• An argument consists of claims supported by
  reasoning, by facts, examples, and evidence.

2
Argument Structure
Principal claim or conclusion
Examples
Evidence
Reasoning
Facts
3
Facts and evidence

• Statistics, testimony, records, and verified
  information
• Make sure they are accurate, relevant, that the
  testimony is by someone whose opinion carries
  weight.

4
Bases of Ethical Arguments

• From Rights what is owed to persons or societies
• From Duties what someone ought to do
• From Results the greatest good for the greatest
  number
• From virtue the qualities of the good life, or
  order of the universe

5
Kinds of ethical arguments

• Teleological consequentialist base judgments
  on the results they are likely to have. (from
  Greek word for goal or end.)
• Deontological, or unconsequentialist (from the
  word that means duty) argue for good or bad,
  regardless of the consequences.

6
Some questions to evaluate an ethical argument

• Are reasons adequate to the conclusion?
• Hidden assumptions?
• Ambiguous words, or to incite prejudice?
• Fallacies in reasoning?
• Is important evidence omitted?
• Information false, contradictory, or unreliable?

7
Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning begin with cases or examples
  or experiences and draw conclusions
• Deductive reasoning begin with abstract
  principles, and then decide about concrete cases

8
Some fallacies of reasoning

• Trickery with language
• Ambiguous words
• Misleading euphemisms
• Prejudicial language

9

• Trickery with emotions
• Appeal to fear
• Appeal to pity
• Appeal to false authority
• Appeal to bandwagon
• Appeal to prejudice
• Personal attack
• Poisoning the well

10
More fallacies (there are a lot!)

• Trickery with distraction
• Red Herring
• Pointing to another wrong
• Straw Man
• Circular Reasoning

11
Start the New Year with a meatless diet

• With the onset of 2003, millions of Americans
  will be making the traditional health-centered
  New Years resolutions to exercise more, to lose
  weight, to quit smoking.This year, lets expand
  our sights and our hopes beyond our own health to
  the health of our family and our natural
  environment, including the animals and our planet
  Earth. I short, let us think globally as we act
  locally. Amazingly, each of us can accomplish all
  that three times a day by switching from meat and
  dairy products to convenient, wholesome,
  delicious, plant-based foods. In addition to the
  highly recommended five servings of fresh fruits
  and vegetables, every supermarket now carries
  soy-based deli slices, veggi burgers and hot
  dogs, heat-and-eat dinners, as well as soy milk
  and ice cream. On the first day of the new year,
  let us turn over a new leaf, kick the meat habit,
  and get a new lease on our own life as well as
  the life of our planet.
• (News-Sentinel, Wed. Jan. 1, 2003)

12
Medicare too important not to fund adequately

• When the Congress returns this month, Medicare
  payments to doctors will again be reduced by 4
  percent unless we contact our congressmen
  immediately to stop this outrage. Last year,
  medical providers were cut 5.4 percent. Hardest
  hit are the doctors who accept Medicare despite
  the low reimbursements. Our doctors have staffs
  and operating expenses to pay. They, too, have
  families to support. We are headed for a crisis
  if doctors and medical facilities stop taking
  Medicare, as the Mayo Clinic in Jacksonville,
  Fla, is expected to do. The clinics action can
  only escalate the potential for crisis if others
  follow. Doctors cannot continue to care for
  patients when they cant meet their costs. Those
  turning 65 with only Medicare for their health
  needs may not be able to locate a doctor. The
  constant assault on Medicare is immoral,
  considering the billions Congress allocated
  without hesitation for the war on terrorism.
  There must be a balance. The president and our
  congressmen will never have to worry about their
  medical care yet they expect their elderly
  constituents to accept the prospect of having
  medical care denied them. The irony is that the
  elderly continue to have Medicare deducted from
  their Social Security and working Americans from
  their paychecks. Are they not owed an
  accounting? (News Sentinel, Jan. 3, 2003)

13
A few words about reasoning from religious faith

• All religious systems offer their followers
  ethical guidance, so it is appropriate to use
  your faith in ethical guidance.
• But also important to try to articulate reasons
  that people from other traditions will
  understand, and to plunge deep into questions.
• So not just WWJD what would Jesus do? But Why
  would Jesus do it?

14
Arguments from religion careful!

• And if argue from scripture, need to take account
  of all of scripture, and the differences within
  scripture.
• Ethical theory can strengthen arguments from
  religious point of view everything we will
  study has been used by religious thinkers in
  their approach to ethics.