Human Inquiry and Science

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Chapter 1

• Human Inquiry and Science

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Introduction

• What is science?
• Structured method of inquiry
• How do we usually know what we know?
• We rely on agreement more than direct experience
  not scientific
• Is what we know, reality?
• Science needs both logical (rational) and
  empirical (observational) evidence
• Logical explanations must be rational
• Empirical we discover reality through personal
  experience (e.g. experiments)

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Introduction

• Probabilistic reasoning is natural
• A usually results in B
• Rather than deterministic reasoning (A always
  results in B)
• Social science is almost always probabilistic
  reasoning
• Prediction future events caused by present
  events
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Understanding aids prediction

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Introduction

• Knowledge based on agreement is second-hand
  knowledge. Examples
• Tradition truth and fiction
• Advantage we gain from others experience
• Disadvantage we rarely challenge what is true
• Authority
• Status of the source can help or hurt

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Causes of Errors

• Examples
• Inaccurate observations our senses are limited
• Overgeneralization sample selection
  reductionism
• Selective observation we see what we expect to
  see
• Poor logic see this site

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So What is Real?

• Premodern view reality is external I see things
  as they really are
• Modern view reality is external, stable but
  many views are valid
• Postmodern view there is no external reality, we
  construct it individually and socially through
  communication
• Each view colors our observations

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Postmodern Dilemma

• Everything thats been said was said by
  somebody
• Therefore, if there is no objective reality to
  discover?
• What is the place of science?

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Two Pillars of Science

• Logic and observation (empirical)
• Both are necessary and relate to
• Theory the logical part
• Data collection the observation part
• Data analysis it uses both. It uses logic to
  find patterns in our observations (empirical
  evidence)
• Scientific theory discovers what is, not what
  should be.
• No value judgments in science
• This does not mean that scientific inquiry does
  not demand an ethical approach

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Theory

• Defined A systematic explanation of observations
  we make of the world
• Functions of theories
• Describe
• Explain
• Predict
• Control

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More Thoughts on Research

• Dont avoid the obvious, challenge it
• Social patterns of behavior will have exceptions.
  These do not disprove the pattern
  (probabilistic reasoning)
• Social research is usually about groups
  (aggregates)
• We dont try to understand people, but the
  systems in which they operate. The elements of
  those systems are variables

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Variables and Attributes

• Variable something that varies
• Examples gender, religiosity, age, occupation,
  etc.
• Variables consist of a logical group of
  attributes (values)
• Categories of the variable
• Example male, very religious, 24 years old,
  pilot, etc.
• Variables a problematic when concepts are
  ambiguous patriotic, religious, prejudiced, etc.
  (see pg. 16)
• Were interested in both describing variables and
  finding relationships between variables they aid
  prediction theory building

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Variables or Attributes?

• Social Research book by Earl Babbie?
• Book title?
• Doberman?
• Dog breed?
• Medium?
• Telephone?
• Uncertain?
• Level of uncertainty?
• Education level?
• Short?
• Angry?

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Theories

• Relationships between variables
• Often involve causation (but not always)
• Causal models distinguish between cause and
  effect variables
• Cause independent variable
• Effect dependent variable
• Be careful not to assume causation
• Coincidence? Correlation?
• E.g. Hypothesis children that participate in
  violent sports are more likely to act out. Data
  shows a relationship. Causal?

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Basic Distinctions in Social Research

• Idiographic vs. nomothetic explanations
• Idiographic describing/exploring a single (or
  few) situation/person/event in great detail
• Our explanation of cause can only refer to the
  idiosyncratic situation/person/event
• Nomothetic seeks to generally explain a class of
  situations/persons/events
• What are causes of variations in variables?
• Not very accurate at the individual level
• Both are useful in science

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Idiographic or Nomothetic?

• A study of an immigrant work camp
• A study of professional females that raise
  children
• A study that examines why a local politician
  chose his/her career
• A study that explored the public response to a
  local tragedy
• A study of motivation regarding those that choose
  a nursing career
• A study of the relationship between learning
  success in college and a students previous
  educational success
• A study that examines the memories of high school
  graduates with regard to their teachers

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Basic Distinctions in Social Research

• Deductive vs. inductive theory building
• Deductive general to the specific
• Inductive specific to the general
• Qualitative vs. quantitative data
• Qualitative nonnumerical data subjective data.
  Examples intelligent or religious
• Quantitative numeric data objective. Examples
  age, height, pressure etc.
• All observations start out qualitative. We
  quantify our observations to create
  quantitative data

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Basic Distinctions in Social Research

• Pure vs. applied research
• Relate to the motivation behind the research
• Pure research knowledge for knowledges sake
  fascination
• Applied research knowledge that has practical
  implications

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Chapter 17

• Know
• Primary vs. secondary research citations
• Ethics and practice of their use
• Journals
• Where to find them
• How to read them
• Books
• Special considerations
• Web
• Special considerations

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Finding Primary Sources on ProQuest

• Start with a topic
• Nonverbal behaviors
• Key in nonverbal in ProQuest 3583 hits
• Limit to full text, peer reviewed 1268 hits
• Narrow the topic
• Nonverbal behaviors and others perception
• Key in nonverbal and perception in ProQuest
  223 hits
• Limit to peer reviewed, full text 145 hits
• Limit to abstract 35 hits

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Finding Primary Sources on ProQuest

• Narrow again
• Nonverbal behavior and perception of credibility
• Key in nonverbal, perception and credibility
  with full text, peer reviewed 3 hits
• Report the findings
• The quote the present results suggest that some
  nonverbal behaviors have a direct impact on how
  people attribute specific bases of power
• Dont use this. Paraphrase

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Finding Primary Sources on ProQuest

• Paraphrase the research finding
• Aguinis, Simonsen and Pierce found that nonverbal
  behaviors, like posture, affects perceptions of
  power in relationships (1988, Discussion
  section).
• Or Nonverbal behaviors, like posture, have been
  shown to affect perceptions of power in
  relationships (Aguinis, Simonsen Pierce, 1988,
  Discussion section).