Reading Fluency: Phonemic Awareness, Orthography, Rapid Naming

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Reading Fluency Phonemic Awareness, Orthography,
Rapid Naming Prosody
Pamela E. Hook, Ph.D. phook_at_mghihp.edu and Christ
ine Doyle, CCC-SLP cdoyle_at_mghihp.edu MGH
Institute of Health Professions ASHA
Convention Boston 2007  
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Components of the Reading Process

• Word Identification
• Comprehension

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Types of reading disabilities
LLD (Syntactic, Semantic, Pragmatic
Deficits)
DYSLEXIA (Decoding Deficits)
ADHD (Metacognitive Deficits)
Model by Carol Westby
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Definitions
Phoneme the smallest unit that serves to
distinguish one utterance from another in a
language (as the /b/ of bat and the /m/ of mat)
Phonemic Awareness an awareness of the sound
structure of ones language at the single phoneme
level involves the ability to segment, blend,
and manipulate those sounds
Phonics a teaching approach that gives attention
to the application of letter-sound
correspondences for reading and spelling
Orthography The total writing system of a
language also refers to the letter patterns
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Processes Involved in Word Identification/
Spelling

• Phonological Awareness
• Rhyming
• Blending
• Segmenting
• Manipulating

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PhonologicalAwareness
Phonemic Awareness
Word Awareness
Rhyming
Syllable Awareness
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Why is Phonemic Awareness Important?

• A childs level of phonemic awareness on
  entering school is widely held to be the
  strongest predictor of the success he or she will
  experience learning to read. (Adams and Bruck,
  1995)

However, without direct instructional support,
phonemic awareness eludes roughly 25 of middle
class first graders and substantially more of
those who come from less literacy-rich
backgrounds. (Adams, 1990)
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The Problem of Coarticulation
Why is Phonemic Awareness Difficult for Some
Children?
/d
a
g/
"dog"
C. Haynes, 1997 (Thanks to A. Liberman.)
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Phonological Awareness Developmental Continuum
Rhyming Word Awareness
Syllable blending segmentation
Onset-rime blending segmentation
Phoneme blending segmenting Phoneme
deletion manipulation (Modified from OConnor,
1998)
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Processes Involved in Word Identification/
Spelling

• Phonological Awareness
• Orthographic Processing
• Recognizing letter patterns that make up whole
  words or parts of words.

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First Grader Across the Year (Adams, 1990)
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Four Types of Words in English Orthography

• Regular for reading and spelling (follows
  unambiguous sound/symbol relationships)

Examples dog, sprint

• Regular for reading but not for spelling
  (unambiguous for reading but ambiguous for
  spelling)

Examples boat (could be bote for spelling)
sail (could be sale for spelling)
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Four Types of Words in English Orthography
(contd)
3. Rule/generalization based
Examples planning (follows one syllable
doubling rule) stretch (follows the final
tch generalization)
4. Irregular (part of word does not follow
sound/symbol correspondence relationships)
Examples beauty (only eau is irregular)
friend (only ie is irregular)
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What Do These Third Grade Students Know About
Phonology and Orthography?
Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston, 2000
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Processes Involved in Word Identification/
Spelling

• Phonological Awareness
• Orthographic Processing
• Naming Speed (RAN)
• Development of automaticity and fluency

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Double Deficit Hypothesis(Wolf, 1997, 2002)
EASY
DIFFICULT
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Comprehension Skills
Word Identification Skills
Pamela Hook, 2000
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National Research Council Report (NRC), 1998
Firm Conclusion from Recent Preventive
Researchsummarized by Torgesen, NEJC, 1999)
1. Instructional approaches that are more
phonemically explicit have the strongest impact
on the reading growth of children at-risk for
reading disabilities.
2. Intensive preventive intervention can bring
the average word reading skills of children
at-risk for reading disabilities solidly into the
average range.
3. In all studies reported thus far, a
substantial proportion of at-risk children have
remained relatively impaired in word reading
ability following the intervention.
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Bridging between Phonemic Awareness and Phonics
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Sound-Symbol Correspondence Is
The ability to produce the sound corresponding
to a letter or letter combination.
(Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, 1998)
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Techniques for Teaching Sound-Symbol
Correspondence

• Key Words
• Story/Picture Associations
• Mouth Placement Cues
• Multi-sensory Techniques

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Bridging between Phonemic Awareness and Phonics
Multi-sensory activities that incorporate both
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics Elkonin and ROAST
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Say It And Move It-Elkonin TechniquePhonological
Segmentation

• To train phonological segmentation and careful
  monitoring of sequence and exact sound/symbol
  correspondence for encoding and decoding.

• student has a series of markers (colored blocks,
  pennies, paper clips)
• teacher says a word
• student repeats the word
• student segments the word into sounds (phonemes)
  while moving one marker down to a segmented line
  or series of boxes for each sound in the word
  (consonant digraphs and vowel combinations are
  considered one sound while consonant blends are
  separated)"silent e" can be coded with a special
  marker
• student can then write the word if appropriate

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Segmentation (Elkonin)
/t/
/s/
/i/
sit
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Segmentation (Elkonin)
/t/
/s/
/i/
sit
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Elkonin ContDecoding

• Teacher constructs word or word part with letter
  tiles or plastic letters
• student moves letter tiles or plastic letters
  while pronouncing the sound of each grapheme
• student blends sounds to decode the word or word
  part

As students progress, it may be sufficient for
them to touch each letter as they say the sound.
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Bridge to Orthography
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The Six Syllable Types

• closed notclosed in by a consonant vowel
  makes its short sound
• open noends in a vowel vowel makes its long
  sound
• silent e noteends in a vowel consonant e
  vowel makes its long sound

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The Six Syllable Types (contd)

• vowel combination nailthe two vowels together
  make a sound
• r controlled birdcontains a vowel plus r
  vowel sound is changed
• consonant-l-e ta/bleat the end of a word

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open
vv
r cont
closed
c-le
silent e
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Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words

• Rules for Syllable Divisionbased in the
  phonological system
• Structural Analysisbased in the morphological
  system

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Strategy for Reading Multisyllable Words

• Rules for Syllable Division
• Apply to two syllable and some three-syllable
  words (e.g. bas/ket po/ta/to)
• There are Three Main Syllable Division Patterns

• VC/CV hel/met

• V/CV la/bor

• VC/V tim/id

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Divide and Conquer
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Strategies for Reading Multisyllable Words

• Rules for Syllable Division
• Structural Analysis
• Apply to three-syllable words

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Definition of Structural Analysis
Structural Analysis is the study of the
morphological structure of words that includes
prefixes, stems and suffixes to enhance word
identification and meaning.
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Why is structural analysis important?

• allows students to recognize a finite number of
  word parts to aid in pronunciation of
  multi-syllabic words
• can be linked to vocabulary work involving
  stems and affixes

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Divide These Words
predictable
understanding
understanding
transporting
understanding
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Bridging between Phonics and Automaticity/ Fluency
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Automaticity/Fluency
  Automaticity accuracy and rate   Single
Word Level effortless identification of words
Fluency automaticity (accuracy and rate) plus
rhythm/prosody/ syntactic chunking for
comprehensiondeveloping an anticipatory set
(movement through text)
Text Level coordination of automatic word
recognition with appropriate phrasing and
expression for comprehension
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Development of Fluency
Fluency
(attention is free to comprehend)
(appropriate phrasing and expression)
Automaticity
(accuracy and speed)
Decoding Skills
BayState Readers, 2002
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Assessment of Automaticity and Fluency in Reading
Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) Test of
Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF) Dynamic
Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
(DIBELS) Gray Oral Reading Test-4 (GORT-4)
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Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)Real Words
104 words total in four columns45 seconds

• go
• dog
• in
• at
• am
• it
• so
• big
• be
• do
• box

shop meat best then spell come start green want
better learn
chance instead farmer spring present strong huge b
elieve office question contact
initiate spurious particular emergency select
ion verbatim awkward wilderness grandiose ornament
penitent
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Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE)NonWords
63 words total in three columns45 seconds

• ip
• ga
• co
• ta
• om
• ig
• ni
• pim
• wum
• lat
• baf

brinbert clabom drepnort shratted plofent smu
ncrit pelnador fornalask fermabalt crenidmoke emul
batate
barp stip plin frip poth vasp meest shlee
guddy skree felly
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Test of Silent Word Reading Fluency (TOSWRF)
Draw a line between words3 minutes

• oratgetruncarisfunbluebiglikeback/
• eachmuchthreezooapplefarflywould/
• wayunderbirdfoundegglunchyardlive/
• staygirlcakeofbutpetroomlightvery/
• sullyseculargirddubcoerceguile/
• epochprecludepulsearvernacularquaff/

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Single Word Level
Developing Automaticity
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Training the Orthographic Processor

• Marking the Vowel in Closed and Magic-E Syllables

• If the word is a closed syllable, mark the vowel
  short
• If the word is a magic-e syllable, mark the vowel
  long

Example take hunt clasp sole ice set
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Linking the Orthographic and Phonological
Processors

• Contrast Card Practicing the sounds of a in
  Closed and silent e syllables

Say /a/ or /a/ for each word
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Sample Fischer Drill (Child reads words
horizontally as quickly as possible.)
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Sample S.P.I.R.E. Drill
?1999 Sheila Clark-Edmands Blackline Master
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Assessing Fluency
Measuring oral reading rate per minute.
(Mercer Campbell, 1998) 1 Gr. 30 -
50 wpm 2 Gr. 85 - 100 wpm 3-8 Gr.
100 - 180 wpm GORT-3 5th Gr. SS of 100 for
fluency, 137-150 wpm (Torgeson, Rashotte
Alexander, 2001) 9-12 Gr. 200 wpm -
Silent rates improve 10-20 wpm/year
Counting number and length of pauses.
Rating the prosodic quality.
Mercer, C., and Campbell, K. 1998. Great Leaps
Reading Program. Micanopy, FL K-2 Diarmuid,
Inc.
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Text Level
Developing Fluency
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General Strategies for Teaching Fluency
Selection of Text reader should be able to
decode text With 90 - 95 accuracy and not
pause on too many words.
(Adams, 1990)
Systematic Practice structured and sequential
fluency practice at all levels.
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General Strategies for Teaching Fluency (contd.)
Use a marker or pencil reader should use a
marker to aid their focus and in the flow of
their reading.
Silent Reading prereading of text silently
allows students to review text and practice any
difficult words.
Develop Anticipatory Set set the stage by
activating prior knowledge and reviewing what
might be happening help students predict text
content (Wood, Flowers, Grigorenko, 2001)
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Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction

• GuidedRepeated Reading
• -(NRP, 2000)

Speeded Processing -(Breznitz, 2006)
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Text-Level Repeated Reading

• Student reads aloud a passage several times until
  desired rate of reading is achieved (wpm).

• Student reads aloud another passage with same
• level of difficulty until desired rate is
  again achieved (wpm).

3. Results are graphed to document fluency gains
and provide motivation.
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Chunking/Scooping Modifications of Repeated
Readings
Chunking or scooping under phrases is an
additional clinical technique that can be
employed with repeated readingsadds motor
component.
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Stone Fox Paragraph
With the heel of his moccasin Stone Fox drew a
long line in the snow. Then he walked back over
to his sled and pulled out his rifle.
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Stone Fox Paragraph,Short Phrases
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Stone Fox Paragraph,Combined Phrases
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Stone Fox Paragraph,Reduced Cueing
With the heel of his moccasin Stone Fox drew a
long line in the snow. Then he walked back
over to his sled and pulled out his rifle.









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Phrasing through Signal Words
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Introductory activities
Group signal words by function e.g., places to
go (tell where) over the hill around the
house under the tree Then find these kinds of
words in sentences, first through listening then
reading.
From Based on Alice Ansara in Never Too Late to
Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley
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Listening Activities

• What are the signal words in these sentences
  telling you?
• Instead of buying a pickup truck, he bought a
  van.
• Since he was leaving for Peru, she decided to
  buy a ticket for Paris.
• I like Joan but I like Peter more.

From Based on Alice Ansara in Never Too Late to
Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley
64
Listening Activities (cont.)

• Finish these phrases
• He wanted to buy the Brooklyn Bridge, but . . .
• Without his help, . . .
• Throughout the night, . . .
• As a result of his decision, . . .

From Never Too Late to Read, Ann Cashwell Tuley
65
Objective 7Signal Words in Sentences

• The boy skips in front of his home.
• 2. The pig drank the water after he woke up.
• 3. Jed mowed the lawn and planted the
  flowers.
• 4. Dan meets his sister next to the flagpole
  every day.

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Computer Assisted Instruction and Fluency
Intervention
CAI is particularly well suited to deliver
instruction in the area of fluency.
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Sample CAI Programs

• Guided Repeated Readings
• Read Naturally (focus on paragraph level fluency
  with comprehensionrepeated oral reading)

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Contrasting Approaches to Fluency Instruction
Speeded Processing -(Breznitz, 2006)

• GuidedRepeated Reading
• -(NRP, 2000)

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Speeded Processing

• Student reads a sentence or paragraph silently
  and answers a comprehension question to determine
  current rate where high accuracy in
  comprehension is achieved

• Text disappears at rate determined by practice
  selections

3. Results are monitored speed at which text
disappears increases or decreases based on
student response
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Sample CAI Programs (cont.)

• Speeded Processing
• Reading Acceleration (focus on sentence level
  fluency with comprehensionspeeded text silent
  reading)research version
• Reading Plus (focus on paragraph level fluency
  with comprehensionspeeded text silent reading)

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Theoretical Issues to consider

• Single word vs. text level
• Sentence level vs. paragraph level
• Silent reading vs. oral reading

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References
Adams, M. J. (1990) Beginning to Read Thinking
and Learning About Print, The MIT Press,
Cambridge, MA. Badian, N. A. (1995). Predicting
reading ability over the long term The changing
roles of letter-naming, phonological awareness
and orthographic processing. Annals of Dyslexia,
45, 3-25. Bear, D., Invernizzi, M.,Templeton,
S., and Johnston, F. (2000) Words Their Way
Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling
Instruction (2nd Edition). Prentice Hall,
Inc. Chall, J. S. (1983) Stages of Reading
Development, McGraw-Hill, New York,
NY. Clark-Edmands, S. (1998) Specialized Program
Individualizing Reading Excellence (SPIRE).
Kennebunk, ME Progress Learning, Inc. Fischer,
P. (1994) Speed Drills for Decoding Automaticity.
Farmington, ME Oxton House. Great Leaps,
Diarmuid, Inc., Gainesville, FL

73
Henry, M.K. (1995) WORDS Integrated Decoding
and Spelling Instruction Based on Word Origin and
Word Structure. Austin, TX Pro-Ed Inhot, C.
(1998) Read Naturally. St. Paul, MN Read
Naturally, Inc. Meyer, M.S. Felton, R. H.
(1999). Repeated reading to enhance fluency Old
approaches and new directions. Annals of
Dyslexia, 49, 283-306. Neuhaus Education Center,
Reading Readiness Skills, Practices for
Developing Accuracy and Fluencyhome practice
program Steere, A., Peck, C. Kahn, L. (1988)
Solving Language Difficulties. Cambridge, MA
Educators Publishing Service. Tuley, A. (1998).
Never Too Late to Read Language Skills for the
Adolescent with Dyslexia. Baltimore, MD York
Press.
Vaccariello, C. A. (1999) Tic-Tac-Read Match
(Books 1 and 2). Moline, IL LinguiSystems
Wolf, M., Bowers, P. (1999). The
Double-Deficit Hypothesis for the developmental
dyslexias. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91
(3), 1-24.