Giving Evidence and Experimenting

1
Giving Evidence andExperimenting

• Wu-Lin Chen (wlchen_at_pu.edu.tw)
• Department of Computer Science and Information
  Management

2
Proof or Evidence

• Proof or evidence is usually the result of
  observation or experimentation, combined with
  reasoning.

3
Using English To Give Evidence

• Due to some scientific hypotheses unprovable
  nature, evidence is frequently introduced with
  words like indicates or demonstrates rather than
  the stronger word proves.

4
Using English To Give Evidence

• EX Smoking is related to many heart and
  circulatory ailments.
• Evidence It has been demonstrated that nicotine
  increases the rate of the heart
• EX Smoking is the most significant factor in
  respiratory diseases.
• Evidence 1 It can damage the tiny hairs (cilia)
  that line the breathing passages
• Evidence 2 Research also confirms that the tar
  in cigarette smoke is carcinogenic
• EX There is also a correlation between smoking
  and birth defects.
• Evidence The evidence indicates that pregnant
  women who smoke a pack of cigarettes a day have a
  greater likelihood of having a miscarriage

5
Using English To Give Evidence

• Evidence is not always marked with a clue word
  and often can only be identified by the context
  of the paragraph.
• EX Smokers often become physically and
  psychologically dependent on their habit
• Evidence 1 Smokers oftensuffer withdrawal
  symptoms if they attempt to stop.
• Evidence 2 Even the onset of a smoking-related
  illness is not always sufficient to enable heavy
  smokers to quit.

6
Reasoning

• Two basic methods to move from evidence to a
  conclusion
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning

7
Deductive Reasoning

• Deductive reasoning moves from a general premise
  or assumption to a specific conclusion.
• All metals are good conductors of electricity.
• Zinc is a metal.
• Therefore, zinc is a good conductor of
  electricity.
• If deductive reasoning is properly stated and if
  the premises are true, the conclusion will be
  true.
• Deductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false
  conclusions if the premise is false.
• All students are lazy.
• Everyone here is a student.
• Therefore, everyone here is lazy.
• All gases can flow.
• All liquids can flow.
• Therefore, all gases are liquids.

8
Inductive Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning moves from a specific
  observation to a general conclusion.
• If air is observed to expand or contract to fill
  any container, the assumption might be made that
  all gases behave this way.
• Inductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false
  conclusions.
• If a particular mushroom is poisonous, all
  mushrooms must be poisonous.
• If the examples are not enough, not
  representative or nor typical, inductive
  reasoning can also lead to false conclusions.

9
Writing Skills

• Scientific writing requires evidence to support
  your statements.
• The more evidence you have and the better is, the
  stronger your statement or argument will be.
• Forms of evidence
• facts
• statistics
• observations
• test results
• survey results
• expert opinion (used carefully)

10
Experimenting

• An experiment is a kind of process.
• A process is a series of acts or operations
  designed to bring about a desired result.
• A common form of process in writing is the
  recipe.
• Analysis is the systematic division of any
  complex whole into its component parts, or
  pieces.
• Process analysis is the step-by-step explanation
  of how something happened, how something is made,
  or how to do something.

11
Using English to Give Directions

• Analyze a process by breaking it down into steps
  or procedures and arranging them in chronological
  order (i.e. the order which things happen).
• Give directions by writing a list of steps rather
  than a paragraph.
• The imperative form of verb is used.
• Arrange tiny pieces of paper on a table.
• Rub a plastic comb with some woolen fabric.
• Hold the comb over the pieces of paper and
  observe what happens. (The paper should be
  attracted to the comb.)

12
Imperative Verbs

• When and how to use imperative verbs
• give a command or direction
• appear at the beginning of a clause
• have a subject that is implied, not stated (you)
  and
• are formed from the present tense of the verb.

13
Writing Skills

• Think through the process in specific details,
  step by step before writing.
• Make sure your written directions are clear.
• Ask yourself whether there are any steps the
  reader should be warned about in advance.
• The following guidelines for writing directions
• List all the steps in the process.
• Begin each step with an imperative verb.
• Arrange the steps in strict chronological order.
• Keep the sentences fairly short. (Do not put
  more than one step together.)
• Include all necessary details, such as specific
  quantities, measurements, and dates.
• Check to see that you have not omitted anything
  or included any unnecessary steps.