Motivation

1
Motivation

• Chapter 12

2
Motivation

• Defining motivation
• Motives to eat
• Motives to love
• Motives for sex
• Motives to achieve
• Motives, values, and well-being

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Defining Motivation

• A inferred process within a person or animal that
  causes movement either toward a goal or away from
  an unpleasant situation.
• Intrinsic motivation
• The pursuit of activity for its own sake.
• Extrinsic motivation
• The pursuit of an activity for external rewards
  such as money or fame.

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Motives to Eat

• The genetics of weight
• Culture, psychology, and weight
• Weight and health Body versus culture

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The Genetics of Weight

• Research suggests that heavy people are no more
  and no less emotionally disturbed than average
  weight people.
• Heaviness is not always caused by overeating.
• Set point
• The genetically influenced weight range for an
  individual, maintained by biological mechanisms
  that regulate food intake, fat reserves and
  metabolism.

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Body Weights of Twins

• Identical twins are more similar in body weight
  than fraternal
• Same whether raised together or apart
• Genetic factors play a large role in body weight

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The Genetics of Weight

• The complexity of mechanisms governing appetite
  and weight explains why appetite suppressing
  drugs fail in the long run.

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The Environment and Obesity

• Environmental factors related to weight gain
• Increased abundance of low-cost, varied high fat
  meals.
• The habit of eating high calorie food on the run
  instead of leisurely meals.
• The rise in energy saving devices such as remote
  controls.
• The speed and conveniences of driving rather than
  walking or biking.
• The preference for watching television or videos
  instead of exercising.

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Small Groups Exercise

• In groups of 4-5 students, discuss what the ideal
  body is for males and females in our society.
• How is this ideal communicated to people? What
  are the consequences for men and women if they do
  not look anything like these ideals?
• Is there more pressure on males or females to
  look a certain way in our society?

10
Cultural Attitudes

• While people of all ethnicities and social
  classes have been getting heavier, the cultural
  ideal for white women has been getting thinner.
• The cultural ideal for men has also changed.
• Muscles used to mean a working class, now
  muscular bodies symbolize affluence.

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Weight and Health Biology versus Culture

• People from cultures emphasizing thinness are
  more likely to have eating disorders.
• Many with eating disorders reflect an irrational
  terror of being too fat.

12
Anorexia Nervosa

• Anorexics have an extremely distorted body image
  and think they are fat when they are drastically
  underweight
• Anorexics lose anywhere between 25 and 50 of
  their body fat
• Because they are malnourished, they have pale
  skin, brittle, discoloured nails, fine dark hairs
  all over the body and an extreme sensitivity to
  cold. If it is left untreated, the heart muscle
  can shrink, the kidneys can fail and irreversible
  brain damage and loss of bone mass can occur.

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Anorexia Nervosa

• Factors that Contribute to the Disorder
• Genetics
• Cultural ideal for thinness
• High standards
• Parent-child relationships

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Bulimia

• An eating disorder characterized by episodes of
  excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced
  vomiting or use of laxatives (purging).

15
Video

• Slim Hopes

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Motives to Love

• The psychology of love
• The ingredients of love
• Attachment theory of love
• Gender, culture, and love

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The Psychology of Love

• Fill out Romantic Theories Questionnaire
• When you are finished, reverse code the following
  items 2, 3, 5, 9, 10
• To reverse code
• 1 7
• 2 6
• 3 5
• 4 4
• 5 3
• 6 2
• 7 1
• Add up all of your responses.

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The Psychology of Love

• The need for affiliation
• The motive to associate with other people, by
  seeking friends, companionship, or love.
• Predictors of love
• Proximity
• Choosing friends and lovers from the set of
  people who are closest to us.
• Similarity
• Choosing friends and lovers who are like us in
  looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and
  interests.

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The Ingredients of Love

• Sternbergs Triangular theory of love
• Passion
• Euphoria and sexual excitement.
• Intimacy
• Being free to talk about things, feeling close to
  and understood by loved ones.
• Commitment
• Needing to be with the other person being loyal.
• Ideal love involves all three.

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The Attachment Theory of Love

• Like infants have attachment styles to their
  caregivers, adults have attachment styles to
  their partners.
• Secure or rarely jealous or worried about being
  abandoned.
• Avoidant or distrustful and avoids intimate
  attachments.
• Anxious ambivalent or agitated and worried that
  partner will leave.
• Adult style is related to infant style.

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Distribution of Attachment Styles

• A representative survey of adults indicated
• Securely attached 33
• Avoidant 25
• Anxious 11

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Gender, Culture, and Love

• Males and females respond similarly to
• Love at first sight
• Passionate love
• Unrequited love
• Being the break-up recipient

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Gender, Culture, and Love

• Men and women different in
• How they express love
• Men-doing women-saying.
• How they define intimacy
• Men-hanging out women-sharing feelings.
• Men and women used to have different goals in
  choices of partners
• Men-more romantic Women-more pragmatic.
• As more women have become economically
  self-sufficient, differences have decreased.

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Motives for Sex

• The Biology of Desire
• The Psychology of Desire
• The Culture of Desire
• The Riddle of Sexual Orientation

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Hormones and Sexual Response

• Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in
  both sexes.
• Documentation included several studies of men and
  women.
• However, this is not a simple relationship.
• Sexual behaviour also increases testosterone.
• Psychological factors are usually more important
  than hormones.
• Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated
  dont always lose sexual desires.

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Arousal and Orgasm

• Kinsey suggested that males and females had
  similar orgasms but that females were less
  sexual.
• Masters and Johnson asserted that womens
  capacity for sexual responses surpassed mens.
• Didnt examine differences based on
  developmental, experiential or cultural factors.

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Arousal and Orgasm

• What we know now
• Physiological responses dont always correlate
  with subjective experiences.
• Psychologists still disagree on whether there are
  sex differences in sex drive.
• Social psychologists suggest that males sexual
  behaviour is more biologically determined while
  females sexual desires and responsiveness are
  more affected by circumstances, the specific
  relationship and cultural norms.

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The Psychology of Desire

• Motives for sex include
• Enhancement
• Intimacy
• Coping
• Self-Affirmation
• Partner Approval
• Peer Approval

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Sexual Coercion and Rape

• Persistent gender differences occur in
  perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual
  coercion.
• 29 of female undergraduates reported having
  experienced at least one incident of sexual
  assault.
• Only 6 of all sexual assaults in Canada are
  reported to police, due possibly to the fact that
  most women know their male attackers.
• Men are far more likely than women to admit
  coercing a partner into sex - using alcohol,
  drugs, threats, or actual physical force.

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Possible Motivations for Rape

• Peer approval
• General anger
• Revenge
• The desire to dominate
• Anger at women or the world

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The Culture of Desire

• Sexual Scripts
• Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual
  behaviour for a person in a given situation,
  varying with the persons age, culture, and
  gender.

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The Riddle of Sexual Orientation

• Factors which do not explain homosexuality
• A smothering mother.
• An absent father.
• Emotional problems.
• Same sex play in childhood and adolescence.
• Parental practices.
• Role models.
• Seduction by an older adult.

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Biological Explanations for Homosexuality

• Studies demonstrating brain differences have not
  been replicated.
• Prenatal exposure to androgens.
• May be moderately heritable.

34
Sexual Orientation Genetic Links

• Identical twins have highest concordance rates
  for sexual orientation
• Same pattern for males and females
• This suggests some genetic link in sexual
  orientation

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Difficulty in Finding Origin of Homosexuality

• Sexual identity and behaviour are different and
  can occur in different combinations.
• Some are sexually attracted to both men and
  women.
• Some are heterosexual in behaviour but have
  homosexual fantasies.
• Sexual behaviours can differ in different
  cultures.

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Motives to Achieve

• The Effects of Motivation on Work
• The Effects of Work on Motivation

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Motives to Achieve

• Need for achievement
• A learned motive to meet personal standards of
  success and excellence in a chosen area.
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a
  projective test that asks people to invent
  stories about ambiguous pictures which are then
  scored for unconscious motives such as the need
  for achievement, power, or affiliation.

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The Importance of Goals

• Goals improve motivation when
• The goal is specific
• The goal is challenging but achievable
• The goal is framed in terms of approach goals
  instead of avoidance goals
• Approach goals are framed as getting what is
  wanted.
• Avoidance goals are framed in terms of avoiding
  unpleasant experiences.

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Types of Goals

• Performance Goals
• Goals framed in terms of performing well in front
  of others, being judged favourably, and avoiding
  criticism.
• Mastery (Learning) Goals
• Goals framed in terms of increasing ones
  competence and skills.

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Expectations and Self-efficacy

• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• A expectation that comes true because of the
  tendency of the person holding it to act in ways
  that bring it about.
• Self-Efficacy
• A persons belief that he or she is capable of
  producing desired results, such as mastering new
  skills and reaching goals.

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Expectations and Self-efficacy

• Self-fulfilling prophecy
• A expectation that comes true because of the
  tendency of the person holding it to act in ways
  that bring it about.
• Self-Efficacy
• A persons belief that he or she is capable of
  producing desired results, such as mastering new
  skills and reaching goals.

Prophecy Ill never learn this stuff
Prophecy Fulfilled Dont learn the material
Person doesnt study hard enough
Person gives up trying
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Working Conditions

• Working conditions that increase job involvement,
  motivation, and satisfaction include
• Work provides a sense of meaningfulness.
• Employees have control over part of work.
• Tasks are varied.
• Company maintains clear and consistent rules.
• Employees have supportive relationships with
  superiors and co-workers.
• Employees receive useful feedback.
• Company offers opportunities for growth.

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Opportunities to Achieve

• When person lacks fair chance to make it, he or
  she may be less than successful.

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Motives, Values and Well-Being

• Motivational conflicts
• Maslows hierarchy of needs
• Universal psychological needs

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Motivational Conflicts

• Approach-Approach Conflict
• Equally attracted to two activities or goals.
• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict
• Choosing between the lesser of the evils.
• Approach-Avoidance Conflict
• One activity or goal has both positive and
  negative elements.

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Maslow's Pyramid of Needs

• Needs arranged in a hierarchy
• Low-level needs must be met before trying to
  satisfy higher-level needs
• Esteem Status, respect, power
• Self-actualization Fulfill ones potential

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Universal Psychological Needs

• Autonomy
• Feeling that choices are based on true interests
  and values.
• Competence
• Feeling able to master hard challenges.
• Relatedness
• Feeling close to others who are important to you.
• Self-esteem
• Self-respect.