5. Organic Analysis

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5. Organic Analysis

• Terms to Know
• Chemistry Review
• Chromatography
• Electrophoresis
• Light
• Spectrophotometry

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Terms to Know

• Monochromatic light
• Organic
• Photon
• Physical state
• Pyrolysis
• Spectrophotometry
• Sublimation
• Ultraviolet light
• Visible light
• Wavelength
• X-ray

• Chromatography
• Compound
• Electromagnetic spectrum
• Element
• Fluoresce
• Frequency
• Infrared
• Inorganic
• Ion
• Laser
• Matter

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Chemistry Review

• Matter anything that has mass and takes up
  space.
• Element simplest substance known that is made
  up of atoms.
• They all appear on the periodic table.
• Compound 2 or more elements put together.
• They take on physical states solid, liquid, gas.
• If a compound goes from a solid directly to a gas
  it is called sublimation. (ie. Dry ice)
• Organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen,
  and hydrogen.
• Inorganic compounds are not primarily composed
  using carbon (ie. metals).

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Chromatography

• Organic mixtures are separated by their
  attraction to a stationary phase while being
  propelled by a moving phase.
• This tells you the make up of the substance.
• Computer produces a report called a chromatograph.

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Types of Chromatography

• Gas Chromatography (GC)
• Separates mixtures on the basis of their
  distribution between a stationary liquid phase
  and moving gas phase.
• You would then compare the sample chromatograph
  with a known chromatograph.
• Pyrolysis gas chromatograph where organic
  matter is broken down by heat then processed.
  (ie. Paint chips, plastic).
• High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
• The stationary part is a film and the moving part
  is a liquid pushed in a column of air.
• This is good for heat sensitive items like
  explosives and LSD since it does not have to be
  heated.
• Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
• The stationary part is a thinly coated solid and
  the moving part is a liquid.

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Detector
Recorder
Gas/Liquid Chromatography A gas supply C
heating coil D, G, K saturators E thermal
conductivity detector
F, J tempering coil H injection block I
chromatographic column TH - thermostats
Gas supply
Oven
GC and computer
Chromatograph of Diet Coke
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Electrophoresis

• A technique for separating molecules through
  their migration on a support medium (agar gel)
  while under the influence of an electrical
  potential. (Similar to TLC)
• Used primarily for proteins and DNA.
• Substances move at different rates therefore you
  can see after a set time a distinct set of marks
  that you can compare against known substances.

Sometimes substances are clear so a fluorescent
dye is added and then the gel is looked at under
a black light.
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Light

• Light is made up of photons which are small
  pieces of electromagnetic radiation.
• Wavelength (?) is the distance between crest to
  crest.
• Frequency (f) is the number of waves that pass a
  given point in one second.
• Speed of light is 3x108 m/s
• C ?f
• Lasers are light amplification by the simulated
  emission of radiation. Some are so strong they
  can make a hole in a diamond.

The bottom wave has double the frequency of the
wave above.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Spectrophotometry

• Method for identifying a substance by its
  absorption of different wavelengths of light.
• Monochromometer uses only wavelength.
• Infrared is the highest level of
  spectrophotometer and is considered to be the
  fingerprint of a substance.

Sample
Meter
Prism
Light Source
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Digital Readout
Power Switch Zero Control
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Mass Spectrometer

• After GC the material enters a high vacuum
  chamber where it is hit with high energy
  electrons.
• This turns the materials atoms into ions.
• As it passes through an electric or magnetic
  field where they are separated by mass.
• The machine prints out a report called a spectra.

A
B
C
Chromatograph
Spectra-graph
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6. The Microscope

• Terms to Know
• The Compound Microscope
• The Comparison Microscope
• The Stereoscopic Microscope
• The Polarizing Microscope
• The Microspectrophotometer
• The Scanning Electron Microscope

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Terms to Know

• Binocular
• Condenser
• Eyepiece lens
• Field of view
• Monocular
• Objective lens
• Real image
• Vertical or Reflected illumination
• Virtual image

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Basic Terms

• Virtual Image an image that cannot be seen
  directly. It can only be seen by a viewer looking
  through a lens. (Magnification)
• Real Image an image formed by the actual
  convergence of light rays upon a screen.
• Field of View The area of the specimen that can
  be seen after it is magnified.
• Vertical or Reflected Illumination illumination
  of a specimen from above. Used to see opaque
  specimens.

Virtual Image Field of View
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The Compound Microscope

• Typical microscope used for looking at samples
  placed onto slides.
• These are basic microscopes.

Iris
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The Comparison Microscope

• Two compound microscopes placed next to each
  other.
• Basic Comparison Microscopes have only a joining
  eye lens.
• More technological versions are joined by a
  computer to show the comparative samples on a
  screen.

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The Stereoscopic Microscope

• Also called a dissecting microscope.
• Used for specimens too large for a slide.
• Also used for live dissections of small items.

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The Polarizing Microscope

• This is a typical Compound or Stereoscopic
  Microscope with the added benefit of a polarizer
  to distort the light applied to the specimen.
• This is typically used when looking at specimens
  that can polarize light. (ie. Glass, crystalline
  substances)

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The Microspectrophotometer

• This microscope is relatively new.
• It is used to look at tiny particles of trace
  evidence.

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The Scanning Electron Microscope
Electron gun
Condenser lens
Objective lens
Airlock
Electron Detector
Specimen

• This microscope uses electrons instead of light.
• The electrons bounce off of the specimen and
  project a 3D picture.

Head of a pin as seen in a SEM.
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7. Hairs, Fibers, and Paint

• Terms to Know
• Hair
• Morphology
• Identification
• Collection
• Fibers
• Types
• Identification
• Collection
• Paint

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Terms to Know

• Medulla
• Mitochondrial DNA
• Monomer
• Natural fibers
• Nuclear DNA
• Polymer
• Telogen phase

• Anagen phase
• Catagen phase
• Cortex
• Cuticle
• Follicular tag
• Macromolecule
• Man-made fiber

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Hair Morphology

• Cuticle the scale structure covering the
  exterior of the hair.
• Cortex the main body of the hair shaft.
• Medulla the cellular column running through
  the center of the hair.
• The diameter of the medulla tells what type of
  hair it is. (0.3 or less human, 0.5 or more
  animal)
• The medulla also has different shapes human
  cylindrical, animal patterned. (Cat hair
  medulla looks like a string of pearls.)
• Follicular Tag a translucent piece of tissue
  surrounding the hairs shaft near the root. It
  contains the richest source of DNA associated
  with hair.

• Hair Growth Phases
• Anagen Phase
• The initial growth phase during which the hair
  follicle is actively producing hair.
• Catagen Phase
• A trasnition stage between the anagen and
  telogen phases of hair growth.
• Telogen Phase
• The final growth phase in which hair naturally
  falls out of the skin.

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Hair Identification

• Medulla
• Patterns
• Continuous Interrupted
• Fragmented
• Humans have none or fragmented except Mongoloid
  race who have continuous or interrupted.
• First a microscope identification is done to tell
  if it is human or animal hair.
• Next the hair is measured and put into a database
  to see what type of human or animal hair it is.
• A comparison microscope can be used to identify
  hairs using a known slide of known hair style,
  color, race versus the unknown hair.
• Can you determine race from a hair sample?
• Yes race can be determined. In some cases it may
  be difficult in a person of many mixed descents.
• Can you determine age and sex from a hair sample?
• Age between a baby and a child 2 years can be
  determined but that is it!
• Sex can be determined if DNA is collected from
  the hair.
• Was the hair forcibly removed from the body?
• Yes a hair with a follicular tag in tack is a
  sign of the hair being ripped from the head.
• Types of DNA
• Nuclear DNA DNA donated from both mother and
  father.
• Mitochondrial DNA DNA donated solely from the
  mother.

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Hair Collection

• When sampling a suspect 50 full-length hairs must
  be secured for sampling.
• The hairs must be from the scalp or pubic hair.
• In the case of rape hairs must be separated and
  samples from the victim must be collected for
  comparison and elimination of known hairs.

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Fibers Types

• Natural Fibers
• Fibers derived entirely from animal or plant
  sources.
• Examples
• Wool (sheep)
• Mohair, Cashmere (goat)
• Fur (various animals like mink, rabbit, beaver)
• Cotton (plant)

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Fibers Types

• Man-Made Fibers
• Fibers derived from either natural or synthetic
  polymers.
• The fibers are typically made by forcing the
  polymeric material through the holes of a
  spinneret.
• Examples
• Rayon, acetate made from cellulose
• Acrylic
• Nylon
• Polyester
• Spandex

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Fibers Identification

• First the fibers are identified by looking at
  them. This is mainly for fibers or parts of
  fabric that are big in size.
• Next they are seen under a microscope.
• Finally if an analysis is requested they may be
  broken down into their make-up to determine what
  they are.

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Fibers Collection

• Large pieces should be collected with tweezers
  and placed in separate paper bags.
• Smaller pieces should be collected using
  polyethylene sheets. This is used to take the
  fibers off of seats, rugs, clothes, and ect.

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Paint Forensics

• The paint must be broken up into its chemical
  parts to determine what it is.
• Car paints are more difficult due to the
  different layers of paint
• Electrocoat primer Applied to the steel body of
  the car (black or gray).
• Primer surfacer For corrosion control and has
  tints. (Light color cars pastel pigment, dark
  color cars red pigment)
• Basecoat This is the color part of the paint.
  (Older cars have heavy metal pigments while newer
  cars have mica pigments since they are more
  environmentally safe.)
• Clearcoat Unpigmented part of the paint for
  gloss and shine. Usually made of polyurethane.
• The microscope is used to view the paint
  scrapings.
• Next they are viewed for how they react to light.
• Finally after the chip is processed the paint
  mixture can tell the manufacturer and possibly
  the model of car. Some paints can even be
  processed to tell the year, since some colors are
  only available during certain years due to
  popular color or the environmental laws created
  which made the paint manufacture change their
  make-up.

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8. Drugs

• Terms to Know
• Introduction
• Drug Dependence
• Narcotic Drugs
• Hallucinogens
• Depressants
• Stimulants
• Club Drugs
• Anabolic Steroids
• Drug-Control Laws
• Drug Identification
• Collection

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Terms to Know

• Anabolic Steroids
• Analgesic
• Depressant
• Hallucinogen
• Narcotic
• Physical Dependence
• Psychological Dependence
• Stimulant

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Introduction

• A drug is a natural or synthetic substance that
  is used to produce physiological or psychological
  effects in humans or higher order animals.
• 1960s brought an increase in the use of
  hallucinogens, amphetamines, and barbiturates.
• 1970s there was an abundance of heroin use.
• 1980s the drug of choice was cocaine.
• Today 75 of the evidence collected at scenes is
  comprised of drugs.

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Drug Dependence

• Dependence
• Withdrawal sickness when a drug is abruptly
  stopped.
• Psychological Dependence
• The conditioned use of a drug caused by
  underlying emotional needs.
• Physical Dependence
• Physiological need for a drug that has been
  brought about by its regular use.
• Drug users must continually take the drug between
  small time increments so that the drug never
  leaves their system.
• There is no way to know exactly how a drug will
  react with an individual. Everyone is
  different.
• For instance alcohol, not everyone who drinks it
  becomes addicted to it.

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Narcotic Drugs

• Narcotic
• Analgesic (pain-killing) substance that depresses
  vital body functions such as blood pressure,
  pulse rate, and breathing rate.
• The regular administration of narcotics will
  produce physical dependence.
• The source for most analgesics narcotics is opium
  which is made from the poppy seed.
• Types
• Opium
• Morphine
• Heroin
• Codeine
• OxyContin
• Methadone

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Narcotics

• Methadone
• Opiate drug
• Given orally in doses of 80-120 mg/day. This
  would interfere with the effects of Heroin and
  Morphine.
• Recent studies find the abuse of this drug is on
  the rise.

• Opium
• Made from the juice of an unripe pod of a poppy
  plant.

• Heroin
• Made by reacting Morphine with acetic anhydride
  or acetyl chloride.
• Soluble in water which is why it is used
  intravenously.
• Immediate high but for a short duration.
• In a sample of street heroin 35 is the drug and
  65 is filler.
• The fillers can be starch, lactose, novocain, and
  mannitol.

• OxyContin
• Opiate drug
• It is not derived from Opium but creates similar
  effects.
• Made of oxycodone which is synthetically close
  to Morphine and Heroin.

• Morphine
• Extracted from Opium.
• Most addicts prefer to use one of the drugs made
  from morphine like Heroin.

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Hallucinogens

• A substance that induces changes in mood,
  attitude, thought, or perception.
• Types
• Marijuana
• LSD
• PCP
• MDMA or Ecstasy

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Hallucinogens

• Marijuana
• Most widely used drug in the US.
• Derived from the Cannabis plant.
• The first known use of the Cannabis plant was In
  2737 BC by the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung who used
  it for female sicknesses.
• It was introduced into the US in 1920 and by 1937
  46 states had laws prohibiting the use or
  possession of the drug.
• In 1964 scientists found that the main chemical
  ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). It is
  found most in the resin and flowers and least in
  the roots.
• The potency of the drug depends on the amount of
  THC found. (Resin 6-12, Loose vegetation
  3-4.5, Liquid hashish 8-22).
• Most users develop a psychological dependency.
• The two potential medical uses are for glaucoma
  and as a muscle relaxant.

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Hallucinogens

• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)
• Derived from ergot, a type of fungus.
• Very potent.
• 25 micrograms 12 hours of effects.
• Change in mood (laughing/crying).
• Vivid flashbacks occur with continued use.
• 1980s and 1990s people used stickers to pass
  the drug in schools.

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Hallucinogens

• Phencyclidine (PCP)
• Synthesized easily in a lab.
• Mixed with other drugs like LSD and sold as
  angel dust.
• 1-6 mg can produce effects.
• Many have feelings of depression and anger when
  using the drug.

• Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or Ecstasy
• Gives the user a happy high but then when the
  drug wears off they have a depressed low.
• Depletes water from your body, must be replaced
  in mega doses or dehydration will set in and
  cause more problems.

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Depressants

• A substance used to depress the functions of the
  central nervous system.
• Depressants calm irritability and anxiety and may
  induce sleep.
• Types
• Alcohol (Ethyl Alcohol)
• Barbiturates
• Tranquilizers
• Street Drugs Glue and solvents

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Depressants

• Tranquilizers
• Produce relaxing tranquility without impairment.
• Chlorpromazine has been used to reduce anxiety in
  mental patients.
• Mild tranquilizers like diazepam (Valium) are
  used for everyday tensions.

• Alcohol
• When it enters the bloodstream it quickly goes to
  the brain.
• Inhibits the mental processes of judgment,
  memory, and concentration.
• High does may cause irritability and displays of
  anger.

• Street Drugs
• Sniffing of volatile solvents like glue, toluene,
  and gasoline.
• The solvent is sniffed and immediately induces
  euphoria.
• Physiological dependence can develop.
• High rate of brain and heart injury.

• Barbiturates
• Derivatives of barbituric acid.
• 25 derivatives are currently used in the medical
  field (Phenobarbital).
• Taken orally (10-70 mg).
• Most are slow active however drug users prefer
  the fast acting ones like pentobarbital.
• Physical dependence can develop.

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Stimulants

• A substance taken to increase alertness or
  activity.
• Types
• Amphetamines
• Cocaine

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Stimulants

• Cocaine
• Extracted from the leaves of Erythroxylon coca
  plant in the Andes, South America.
• Used originally as a pain killer (Lidocaine).
• Most commonly it is sniffed.
• Crack is cocaine mixed with backing soda and
  water which forms a rock which is then smoked.
• User is given an euphoric feeling. Vapor can
  reach the brain in 15 seconds.
• The feeling fades just as fast leaving the user
  highly agitated and depressed.
• Most users die from an overdose or heart attack.
• Major psychological dependence develops with
  reoccurring usage.

• Amphetamines
• Synthetic drug that stimulates the central
  nervous system.
• Taken orally at 5-20 mg doses.
• Effect wears off and depression may set in.
• Methamphetamine (ICE) is a smokable form that
  looks like a crystal form of ice.
• Chronic users exhibit violent destructive
  behavior.
• Paranoid schizophrenia can set in after prolonged
  use.
• Phenmetrazine and Phendimetrazine are used for
  weight control.

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Club Drugs

• Synthetic drugs that are used at clubs, bars, and
  raves.
• Most common are
• MDMA (Ecstasy)
• GHB (Gamma Hydroxybutrate)
• CNS Depressant
• Odorless, colorless, and tasteless
• Rohypnol (Roofies)
• CNS Depressant
• Odorless, colorless, and tasteless
• Ketamine
• Used in veterinary medicine.
• Gives humans hallucinations.
• Methamphetamine

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Anabolic Steroids

• Synthetic compounds that are chemically related
  to the male sex hormone testosterone.
• Effects of testosterone on the body
• Promotes the development of secondary male
  characteristics.
• Androgen effect
• Accelerates muscle growth.
• Anabolic effect
• First signs of abuse were with professional
  athletes.
• 1991 anabolic steroids were classified as
  controlled dangerous substances.
• Problems are liver cancer, heart attack,
  increased agitated and destructive behavior,
  premature halting of bone growth in teen boys,
  mood swings, and major depression.

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Drug-Control Laws

• Drug offenses can vary for the same drug
  depending on possession, distributing,
  processing, amount of drug, and the percentage of
  active ingredient in the drug.
• Controlled Substances Act
• Legal drug classification

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Controlled Substances Act

• 5 schedules of classification for controlled
  substances

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Drug Identification

• Pills
• First the pill is examined and hopefully can be
  identified by looking at characteristics.
• For instance most Perks have a number like 521.
• Most local police will ask a pharmacist and get a
  quick answer.
• If the pill cannot be identified it will then be
  broken down and processed to show what drugs are
  contained within.
• Tests for Drug ID
• Color Test
• Microcrystalline Test
• Chromatography
• Spectrophotometry
• Mass Spectrometry

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Drug Tests Color Test

• 5 Primary color reagents
• Marquis
• 2 formaldehyde in sulfuric acid
• Turns purple in the presence of heroin and
  morphine and most opium derivatives.
• Marquis will turn orange-brown when mixed with
  amphetamines and methamphetamines.
• Dillie_Koppanyi
• 1 cobalt acetate in methanol 5 isoproylamine
  in methanol
• Turns violet-blue in the presence of
  barbiturates.
• Duquenois-Levine
• A 2 vanillin and 1 acetaldehyde in ethyl
  alcohol
• B concentrated hydrochloric acid
• C chloroform
• Turns purple when solution C is added if
  marijuana is present.
• Van Urk
• 1 p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde in 10
  hydrochloric acid and ethyl alcohol.
• Turns blue-purple in the presence of LSD.
• Scott Test
• A 2 cobalt thiocyanate dissolved in water and
  glycerin.
• B concentrated hydrochloric acid

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Drug Tests Microcrystalline Test

• Test to identify specific substances by the color
  and morphology of the crystals formed when the
  substance is mixed with specific reagents.
• A drop of reagent is put onto a sample of drug.
  In a small period of time a crystal precipitate
  forms. The precipitate is then looked at under a
  microscope for color and structure so that the
  drug can be determined.

Cocaine
Methamphetamine
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Collection

• Any and all drugs must be bagged and tagged so
  that those working know what drugs they are
  working with.
• When in doubt the area should be labeled where it
  was found, in the hopes of giving a clue to its
  make-up.
• When solvents are collected they must be placed
  in an airtight container so that the solvent
  doesnt evaporate before the scientist can
  determine what it is.