Chapter Six Language and Cognition

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Chapter SixLanguage and Cognition
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1. What is Cognition?

• Mental processes, information processing
• Mental process or faculty of knowing, including
  awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.

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• The formal approach structural patterns,
  including the study of morphological, syntactic,
  and lexical structure.
• The psychological approach language from the
  view of general systems ranging from perception,
  memory, attention, and reasoning.
• The conceptual approach how language structures
  (processes patterns) conceptual content.

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2. Psycholinguistics

• Psychological aspects of language.
• Psychological states and mental activity with the
  use of language.
• Language acquisition, language production
  comprehension.

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Related fields

• Structural linguistics
• Cognitive psychology
• Anthropology
• Neurosciences

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Six subjects of research

• Language acquisition (L1 / L2)
• Language comprehension
• Language production
• Language disorders
• Language and Thought
• Neurocognition

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2.1 Language Acquisition

• Holophrastic stage
• Languages sound patterns
• Phonetic distinctions in parents language.
• One-word stage objects, actions, motions,
  routines.

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Two-word stage around 18m
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• Three-word-utterance stage
• Give doggie paper.
• Put truck window.
• Tractor go floor.

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Fluent grammatical conversation stage

• Embed one constituent inside another
• Give doggie paper. ?
• Give big doggie paper.
• Use more function words missing function words
  and inflection in the beginning but good use
  (90) by the age of 3, with a full range of
  sentence types.
• All parts of all language are acquired before the
  child turns four.

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2.2 Language comprehension

• Mental lexicon information about the properties
  of words, retrievable when understanding language
• For example, we may use morphological rules to
  decompose a complex word like rewritable the
  first few times we encounter it and after several
  exposures we may store and access it as a unit or
  word.
• It means that frequency of exposure determines
  our ability to recall stored instances.

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• Connectionism readers use the same system of
  links between spelling units and sound units to
  generate the pronunciations of written words like
  tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar
  words like stove, or words that are exceptions to
  these patterns, like love.
• Similarity and frequency play important roles in
  processing and comprehending language, with the
  novel items being processed based on their
  similarity to the known ones.

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Word recognition

• Cohort theory
• Marslen-Wilson Welsh (1978)
• The first few phonemes of a spoken word activate
  a set of word candidates that are consistent with
  the input.

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• Interactive model
• Higher processing levels have a direct,
  top-down influence on lower levels.
• Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of
  phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of
  lexical effects on the perception of sub-lexical
  units.
• In certain cases, listeners knowledge of words
  can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes
  in other cases, listeners continue to hear
  phonemes that have been removed from the speech
  signal and replaced by noise.

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• Race model
• Pre-lexical route computes phonological
  information from the acoustic signal
• Lexical route the phonological information
  associated with a word becomes available when the
  word itself is accessed
• When word-level information appears to affect a
  lower-level process, it is assumed that the
  lexical route won the race.

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• Factors involved in word recognition
• Frequency effect the ease with which a word is
  accessed due to its more frequent usage in the L.
• Recency effects the ease with which a word is
  accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the
  discourse or context.
• Cotext We recognize a word more readily when the
  preceding words provide an appropriate context
  for it.

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Lexical ambiguity

• All the meanings related to the word are
  accessed.
• Only one meaning is accessed initially.

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• Are you engaged ?
• My friend drove me to the bank.
• They passed the port at midnight.
• Please give me a camel.
• ??
• ???

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• The clerk (entering) Are you engaged?
• Augustus What business is that of yours?
  However, if you will take the trouble to read the
  society papers for this week, you will see that I
  am engaged to the Honourable Lucy Popham,
  youngest daughter of. . .
• The clerk That isnt what I mean. Can you see a
  female?
• Augustus Of course, I can see a female as easily
  as a male. Do you suppose I am blind?
• (George Bernard Shaw Augustus Does His Bit)

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Comprehension of sentences

• Serial models the sentence comprehension system
  continually and sequentially follows constraints
  of a languages grammar
• Describe how the processor quickly constructs one
  or more representations of a sentence based on a
  restricted range of information that is
  guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation,
  primarily grammatical information.
• Any such representation is then quickly
  interpreted and evaluated, using the full range
  of information that might be relevant.

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• Parallel models emphasize that the comprehension
  system is sensitive to a vast range of
  information, including grammatical, lexical, and
  contextual, as well as knowledge of the
  speaker/writer and of the world in general.
• Describe how the processor uses all relevant
  information to quickly evaluate the full range of
  possible interpretations of a sentence.
• It is generally acknowledged that listeners and
  readers integrate grammatical and situational
  knowledge in understanding a sentence.

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Structural factors in comprehension

• Comprehension of written and spoken language can
  be difficult because it is not always easy to
  identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence
  and the ways in which they relate to one another.
  
• Psycholinguists have proposed principles
  interpreting sentence comprehension with respect
  to the grammatical constraints.

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• Minimal attachment the structurally
  simpler--structural simplicity guides all
  initial analyses in sentence comprehension.
• The second wife will claim the inheritance
  belongs to her.

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Garden path sentences

• The horse raced past the barn fell.
• The man who hunts ducks out on weekends.
• The cotton clothing is usually made of grows in
  Mississippi.
• Fat people eat accumulates.

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Lexical factors in comprehension

• The human sentence processor is primarily guided
  by information about specific words that is
  stored in the lexicon.

• The salesman glanced at a/the customer with
  suspicion/ripped jeans.

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Syntactic ambiguity

• Different possible ways in which words can be fit
  into phrases.
• Ambiguous category of some of the words in the
  sentence.

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• John painted the car in the garage.

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• May likes the vase on the cupboard which she
  bought yesterday.
• The students will discuss their plan to hold a
  dancing party in the classroom.
• I know Simon better than you.
• Tell me if you have time.

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• My brother wasnt reading all the time.
• The chairman appointed Mr. Brown an assistant.
• The scholar wrote long thesis and books.
• Flying planes can be dangerous.

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Comprehension of text

• Resonance model information in long-term memory
  is automatically activated by the presence of
  material that apparently bears a rough semantic
  relation to it.

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Discourse interpretation

• Schemata and drawing inferences
• Schema a pre-existing knowledge structure in
  memory typically involving the normal expected
  patterns of things.

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• RESTAURANT Schema
• Entering, ordering, eating and exiting.
• Entering Scene
• The customer enters a restaurant,
• looks for a table,
• decides where to sit,
• walks to the table

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• John went into a restaurant. He asked the
  waitress for coq au vin. He ate it, paid the bill
  and left. (perfectly understandable)
• John went into a restaurant. He saw a waitress.
  He got up and went home. (does not seem to make
  sense)

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• Apartment for rent. 500.
• I stopped to get some groceries but there weren't
  any baskets left so by the time I arrived at the
  check-out counter I must have looked like a
  juggler having a bad day.

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• A Would you like a coffee?
• B Yes, please.
• B No and no.
• A Right.

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• ??,??????????????????????????,?????????????????
  ????????????????,????????????????????????

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Pragmatic ambiguity

• There is a fly in my soup.
• Today is Sunday.
• Do you enjoy sitting beside me? she asked
  coldly.
• Oh, no, I said.
• Well, you are not wanted here.
• (W. E. B. DuBois, On Being Crazy)

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2.3 Language production

• Access to words
• Conceptualization what to express
• Word selection a competitive process
• Morpho-phonological encoding target words

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• Generation of sentences
• Conceptual preparation deciding what to say a
  global plan is needed
• Word retrieval and application of syntactic
  knowledge
• Processes of sentence generation
• Functional planning assigning grammatical
  functions
• Positional encoding getting into positions for
  each unit

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• Written language production
• Similar to spoken language.
• Orthographic form instead of phonological form.
• However, phonology plays an important role in
  this process.
• Writers have more time available for conceptual
  preparation and planning.

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3. Cognitive Linguistics

• Cognition is the way we think.
• Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of
  the relation between the way we communicate and
  the way we think.
• It is an approach to language that is based on
  our experience of the world and the way we
  perceive and conceptualize it.

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Three main approaches

• The Experiential View
• The Prominence View
• The Attentional View

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Experiential view

• Car a box-like shape, wheels, doors, windows
• comfort, speed, mobility, independence,
• social status

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Prominence view

• The selection and arrangement of the information
  that is expressed.
• The car crashed into the tree.
• The tree is hit by the car.

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Attentional view

• What we actually express reflects which parts of
  an event attract our attention.
• The car crashed into the tree.
• How the car started to swerve
• How it skidded across the road
• How it rumbled onto the verge.

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3.1 Construal

• Construal the ability to conceive and portray
  the same situation in different ways

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• 1. Attention / salience
• We activate the most relevant concepts more than
  concepts that are irrelevant to what we are
  thinking about.
• We drove the road.
• She ran across the road.
• The workers dug through the road.

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• 2. Judgment / Comparison, Figure / Ground
• We cannot attend to all facets of a scene at the
  same time.
• We cannot pay attention to everything. Instead,
  we focus on events of particular salience.
• Figure-ground organization
• The ground seems to be placed behind the figure
  extending in the background.
• The figure is thus more prominent, or even more
  interesting, than the ground.

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• Figure-ground reversal

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• Figure-ground also seems to apply to our
  perception of moving objects.
• In order to distinguish between stationary and
  dynamic figure-ground relations, some cognitive
  linguists (eg Ronald Langacker) use the term
  trajector for a moving figure and landmark for
  the ground of a moving figure.

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• Theres a catfigure on the matground
• There are still some peanutsfigure in the
  bagground
• Batmanfigure was standing on the roofground
• The computerfigure under the tableground is
  mine
• The spacecraftfigure was hovering over
  Metropolisground

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• Tarzantrajector jumped into the riverlandmark
• Spidermantrajector climbed up the
  walllandmark
• The birdtrajector winged its way out the
  windowlandmark
• Wetrajector went across the fieldlandmark
• Itrajectorm going to Londonlandmark

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• 3. Perspective generally depends on two things.
• where we are situated in relation to the scene
  we're viewing.
• how the scene is arranged in relation to our
  situatedness.
• The man is in front of the tree.
• The tree is behind the man.

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• The tree is in front of the man.
• The man is behind the tree.

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3.2 Categorization

• The process of classifying our experiences into
  different categories based on commonalities and
  differences
• A major ingredient in the creation of human
  knowledge
• Allows us to relate present experiences to past
  ones
• Three levels
• basic level
• superordinate level
• subordinate level.

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Basic level Superordinate level
Animal Horse Dog Cat
Chihuahua German dachshund
shepherdSubordinate level Vertical
organization
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3.3 Image Schema

• Johnson, Mark. 1987.The body in the mind The
  bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason.
  Chicago University of Chicago Press.

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• An image-schema is a skeletal mental
  representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied
  (especially spatial or kinesthetic) experience.
• They are highly schematic representations of
  perceptually grounded experience.
• They emerge from our embodied interactions with
  the world.

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Center-periphery schema

• Involves
• a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and
• degrees of distance from the core.
• Examples (English)
• The structure of an apple
• An individuals perceptual sphere
• An individuals social sphere, with family and
  friends at the core and others having degrees of
  peripherality

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Containment schema

• Involves a physical or metaphorical
• boundary
• enclosed area or volume, or
• excluded area or volume.

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• Bodily experience human bodies as containers.
• Structural elements interior, boundary, exterior
• Basic logic For all A, X, either IN (X,A) or
  not.
• For all A, B, X, if CONTAINER (A) and CONTAINER
  (B) and IN (A, B) and IN (X, A), then IN (X, B).
  
• The ship is coming into view.
• Shes deep in thought.
• We stood in silence.

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Cycle schema

• Involves repetitious events and event series. Its
  structure includes the following
• A starting point
• A progression through successive events without
  backtracking
• A return to the initial state
• The schema often has superimposed on it a
  structure that builds toward a climax and then
  goes through a release or decline.

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• Examples (English)
• Days
• Weeks
• Years
• Sleeping and waking
• Breathing
• Circulation
• Emotional buildup and release

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End-of-path schema

• An image schema in which a location is understood
  as the termination of a prescribed path
• Example (English) In the following sentence, it
  is understood that one must traverse the hill
  before reaching Sams home, which is at the end
  of the path
• Sam lives over the hill.

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Force schema

• Involves physical or metaphorical causal
  interaction. It includes the following elements
• A source and target of the force
• A direction and intensity of the force
• A path of motion of the source and/or target
• A sequence of causation

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• Examples (English)
• Physical Wind, Gravity
• Structural elements force, path, entity, etc.
• Interaction, directionality, causality
• Compulsion
• Blockage
• Counterforce
• Diversion
• Removal of restraint

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Link schema

• Consists of two or more entities, connected
  physically or metaphorically, and the bond
  between them.
• Entity A Entity B

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• Examples (English)
• A child holding her mothers hand
• Someone plugging a lamp into the wall
• A causal connection
• Kinship ties

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Part-whole schema

• Involves physical or metaphorical wholes along
  with their parts and a configuration of the
  parts.
• Examples (English)
• Physical The body and its parts
• Metaphorical The family
• The caste structure of India

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Path schema

• Involves physical or metaphorical movement from
  place to place, and
• consists of a starting point, a goal, and a
  series of intermediate points.

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• Examples (English)
• Physical Paths Trajectories
• Metaphorical The purpose-as-physical-goal
  metaphor, as expressed in the following
  sentences
• Tom has gone a long way toward changing his
  personality.
• You have reached the midpoint of your flight
  training.
• She's just starting out to make her fortune.
• Jane was sidetracked in her search for
  self-understanding.

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Scale schema

• Involves an increase or decrease of physical or
  metaphorical amount, and
• consists of any of the following
• A closed- or open-ended
• progression of amount
• A position in the progression
• of amount
• One or more norms of amount
• A calibration of amount

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• Examples
• Physical amounts
• Properties in the number system
• Economic entities such as supply and demand

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Verticality schema
A

• Involves up and down relations.
• Examples
• Standing upright
• Climbing stairs
• Viewing a flagpole
• Watching water rise in a tub

B
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3.4 Metaphor

• George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980). Metaphors
  We Live By. University of Chicago Press.

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Conceptual Metaphor Theory

• Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help
  us structure our thoughts and experiences in the
  world around us.
• Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a
  linguistic one, from one domain to another, not
  from a word to another.

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• Target domain - what is actually being talked
  about.
• Source domain - the domain used as a basis for
  understanding target
• Ontological correspondence
• Epistemic correspondence
• Target domain Source domain

RATIONAL ARGUMENT
WAR
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The epistemic correspondence
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Example LIFE IS A JOURNEY

• Ontological correspondence

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Epistemic correspondence
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Structural Metaphor

• Provides rich highly structured, clearly
  delineated source domain to structure target
  domain.
• The nature of the mapping The mapping involves
  two types of correspondence between target and
  source domain, which are both grounded in our
  experiences in the world.

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• Example
• ARGUMENT IS WAR
• Your claims are indefensible.
• He attacked every weak point in my argument.
• His criticisms were right on target.
• I demolished his argument.
• Ive never won an argument with him.
• You disagree? OK, shoot!
• If you use that strategy, hell wipe you out.
• He shot down all of my arguments.

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Orientational Metaphor

• Gives a concept a spatial orientation
• Characterized by a co-occurrence in our
  experience
• Grounded in an experiential basis, which link
  together the two parts of the metaphor
• The link verb is, part of the metaphor, should
  be seen as the link of two different co-occurring
  experiences.

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• For example,
• MORE IS UP
• This metaphor is grounded in the co-occurrence of
  two different kinds of experiences
• adding more of a substance, and
• perceiving the level of the substance rise.

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• Examples
• HAPPY IS UP SAD IS DOWN
• That boosted my spirits
• Im feeling down
• Im depressed
• CONSCIOUS IS UP UNCONSCIOUS IS DOWN
• Wake up
• He fell asleep
• Hes under hypnosis

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3.5 Metonymy

• It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual
  entity, the vehicle, provides mental access to
  another conceptual entity, the target, within the
  same domain.
• The reference point activates the target.

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• It is modeled as
• idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by Lakoff
  (1987),
• conceptual mappings by Radden Kovecses (1999),
• domain highlighting by Croft (2002),
• combinations of mappings and highlighting by Ruiz
  de Mendoza (2000),
• scenarios by Panther Thornburg (1999) and
• more generally as reference-point activation by
  Langacker (1999) and Barcelona (2000).

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• On the basis of the ontological realms, we may
  distinguish three categories
• the world of concept
• the world of form
• the world of things and events
• They roughly correspond to the three entities
  that comprise the well-known semantic triangle.
• The interrelations between entities of the same
  or from different ontological realms lead to
  various ICMs and possibilities for metonymy.
• Thus, we have three ICMs in ontological realms
  Sign ICMs, Reference ICMs and Concept ICMs.

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• Two general conceptual configurations
• whole ICM and its part(s)
• parts of an ICM.
• (1) Whole ICM and its part(s)
• (i) Thing-and-Part ICM, which may lead to
• two metonymic variants
• WHOLE THING FOR A PART OR THE THING America for
  United States
• PART OF A THNG FOR THE WHOLE THING England for
  Great Britain

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• (ii) Scale ICM. Scales are a special class of
  things and the scalar units are parts of them.
  Typically, a scale as a whole is used for its
  upper end and the upper end of a scale is used to
  stand for the scale as a whole
• WHOLE SCALE FOR UPPER END OF THE SCALE Henry is
  speeding again for Henry is going too fast.
• UPPER END OF A SCALE FOR WHOLE SCALE How old are
  you? for what is your age?

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• (iii) Constitution ICM. It involves matter,
  material or substances which are seen as
  constituting a thing.
• OBJECT FOR MATERIAL CONSTITUTING THE OBJECT I
  smell skunk.
• MATERIAL CONSTITUTING AN OBJECT FOR THE OBJECT
  wood for forest 

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• (iv) Event ICM. Events may be metaphorically
  viewed as things which may have parts.
• WHOLE EVENT FOR SUBEVENT Bill smoked marijuana.
• SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT Mary speaks Spanish.

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• (v) Category-and-Member ICM. A category and its
  members stand in a kind of relation.
• CATEGORY FOR A MEMBER OF THE CATEGORY the pill
  for birth control pill
• MEMBER OF A CATEGORY FOR THE CATEGORY aspirin
  for any pain-relieving tablet

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• (vi) Cateory-and-Property ICM. Properties may
  either be seen metaphorically as possessed
  objects (PROPERTIES ARE POSSESSIONS) or
  metonymically as parts of an object.
• CATEGORY FOR DEFINING PROPERTY jerk for
  stupidity
• DEFNING PROPERTY FOR CATEGORY blacks for black
  people

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• (vii) Reduction ICM. A final type of a PART FOR
  WHOLE metonymy is found in the reduction of the
  form of a sign.
• PART OF A FORM FOR THE WHOLE FORM crude for
  crude oil

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• (2) Parts of an ICM
• (i) Action ICM. It involves a variety of
  participants which may be related to the
  predicate expressing the action or to each other.
  
• AGENT FOR ACTION to author a new book to
  butcher the cow
• ACTION FOR AGENT writer, driver

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• INSTRUMENT FOR ACTION to ski, to hammer
• ACTION FOR INSTRUMENT pencil sharpener
  screwdriver
• OBJECT FOR ACTION to blanket the bed to dust
  the room
• ACTION FOR OBJECT the best bites the flight is
  waiting to depart

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• RESULT FOR ACTION to landscape the garden
• ACTION FOR RESULT the production the product
• MANNER FOR ACTION to tiptoe into the room
• MEANS FOR ACTION He sneezed the tissue off the
  table.

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• TIME FOR ACTION to summer in Paris
• DESTINATION FOR MOTION to porch the newspaper
• INSTRUMENT FOR AGENT the pen for writer

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• (ii) Perception ICM. Perception plays such an
  outstand role in our cognitive world that it
  merits an ICM of its own. Since perceptions may
  also be intentional, the Perception ICM may
  cross-classify with the Action ICM.
• THING PERCEIVED FOR PERCEPTION There goes my
  knee for There goes the pain in my knee
• PERCEPTION FOR THING PERCEIVED sight for thing
  seen

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• (iii) Causation ICM. Cause and effect are so
  closely interdependent that one of them tends to
  imply the other. Moreover, they probably account
  for the fact that people often confuse causes and
  effects. In principle, the causation ICM may give
  rise to reversible metonymies
• CAUSE FOR EFFECT healthy complexion for the
  good state of health bringing about the effect of
  healthy complexion
• EFFECT FRO CAUSE slow road for slow traffic
  resulting from the poor state of the road

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• (iv) Production ICM. It involves actions in which
  one of the participants is a product created by
  the action. The production of objects seems to be
  a particularly salient type of causal action.
• PRODUCTION FOR PRODUCT Ive got a Ford for car

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• INSTRUMENT FOR PRODUCT Did you hear the whistle?
  For its sound
• PRODUCT FOR INSTRUMENT to turn up the heat for
  the radiator
• PLACE FOR PROCUCT MADE THERE china, mocha,
  camembert

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• (v) Control ICM. It includes a controller and a
  person or object controlled. It gives rise to
  reversible metonymic relationships
• CONTROLLER FOR CONTROLLED Nixon bombed Hanoi.
• CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER The Mercedes has
  arrived.

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• (vi) Possession ICM. The possession ICM may lead
  to reversible metonymies
• POSSESSOR FOR POSSESSED Thats me for my bus
  I am parked there for My car
• POSSESSED FOR POSSESSOR He married money for
  person with money

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• (vii) Containment ICM. The image-schematic
  situation of containment is so basic and
  well-entrenched that it deserves to be treated as
  an ICM of its own among locational relations.
• CONTAINER FOR CONTENTS The bottle is sour for
  milk
• CONTENTS FOR CONTAINER The milk tipped over for
  the milk container tipped over

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• (viii) Location ICMs. Places are often associated
  with people living there, well-known institutions
  located there, events which occur or occurred
  there and goods produced or shipped from there.
  Hence, we find the following metonymies
• PLACE FOR INHABITANTS The whole town showed up
  for the people
• INHABITANTS FOR PLACE The French hosted the
  World Cup Soccer Games for France

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• PLACE FOR INSTITUTION Cambridge wont publish
  the book for Cambridge University Press
• INSTITUTION FOR PLACE I live close to the
  University.
• PLACE FOR EVENT Waterloo for battle fought at
  Waterloo
• EVENT FOR PLACE Battle, name of the village in
  East Sussex where the Battle of Hastings was
  fought.

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• (ix) Sign and Reference ICMs. They lead to
  metonymies cross-cutting ontological realms. In
  sign metonymy, a (word-)form stand for a
  conventionally associated concept in reference
  metonymies, a sign, concept or (word-)form stands
  for the real thing.
• WORDS FOR THE CONCEPTS THEY EXPRESS a
  self-contradictory utterance

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• (x) Modification ICM. It mainly applies to
  variant forms of a sign apart from reduction.
• SUBSTITUTE FORM FOR ORIGINAL FORM Do you still
  love me? Yes, I do.

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3.6 Blending Theory

• Also known as the integration theory, proposed by
  Gilles Fauconnier Mark Turner (1994, 1995).
• A cognitive operation whereby elements of two or
  more mental spaces are integrated via
  projection into a new, blended space which has
  its unique structure.

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• Blending operates on two input mental spaces to
  produce a third space, the blend.
• The blend inherits partial structure from the
  input spaces and has emergent structure of its
  own.
• There are some conditions needed when two input
  spaces I1 and I2 are blended

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• Cross-Space Mapping there is a partial mapping
  of counterparts between the input spaces I1 and
  I2.

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• Generic Space It maps onto each of the inputs.
• It reflects some common, usually more abstract,
  structure and organization shared by the inputs.
• It defines the core cross-space mapping between
  them.

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• Blend the inputs I1 and I2 are partially
  projected onto a fourth space, the blend.

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• Emergent Structure the blend has emergent
  structure not provided by the inputs. This
  happens in three interrelated ways
• Composition Taken together, the projections from
  the inputs make new relations available that did
  not exist in the separate inputs.
• Completion Knowledge of background frames,
  cognitive and cultural models, allows the
  composite structure projected into the blend from
  the inputs to be viewed as part of a larger
  self-contained structure in the blend.
  Elaboration The structure in the blend can then
  be elaborated.

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