Chapter Three

1
Chapter Three

• The Psychological Approach A Profusion of
  Theories

2
Psychology

• The scientific study of mind and behavior.
• Uses the scientific method as a means of gaining
  knowledge.
• Investigates internal mental events such as
  reasoning, language, and memory.
• Also investigates external behaviors such as
  talking, walking, and grasping.

3
The scientific method

• A theory is a general understanding of the world
  that organizes a set of facts and aids us in
  understanding how the world works.
• A hypothesis is a more specific statement about
  the world that is frequently derived from a
  hypothesis and can be tested.

4
Experiments

• Scientists use experiments to test hypotheses.
• An experiment must have at least two variables.
• The independent variable is manipulated by the
  researcher.
• The dependent variable is measured by the
  researcher.

5
Experiments

• An experiment must also have at least two
  conditions or groups.
• The experimental group receives the independent
  variable.
• The control group does not.

6
Experiments

• Theory Practice facilitates problem solving.
• Hypothesis Doing logic problems before being
  tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic
  test.

7
Experiments

• Experimental group
• 20 participants.
• Allowed to practice solving problems for 10
  minutes.
• Then given a test problem.
• Independent variable is practice.

• Control group
• 20 participants.
• Not allowed to practice.
• Given the same test problem.
• Dependent variable is scores on the test.

8
Experiments

• Scores on the dependent variable for the two
  groups are compared.
• If test scores in the experimental group are
  significantly higher, then the hypothesis is
  supported.

9
Voluntarism

• Wilhelm Wundt is founder.
• View that the mind is made up of elements.
• The elements are assembled into wholes through an
  act of will.
• Influenced by atoms and molecules of chemistry.

10
Introspection

• Method used by the voluntarists and other early
  psychologists.
• Means inner looking. Consists of subjective
  self-report of mental states.
• Fraught with difficulties.

11
Structuralism

• Edward Titchener considered founder.
• Shares the beliefs that mind is made of elements
  and use of introspection with voluntarism.
• But viewed element combination occurring through
  passive mechanical laws.

12
Functionalism

• Closely associated with William James.
• Focus is on mental processes and functions rather
  than elements.
• Idea of a stream of consciousness. Thought is
  flowing and changing, not static.

13
Gestalt psychology

• Contributors include Wertheimer, Kohler, and
  Koffka.
• View that mind consists of wholes that are more
  than the sum of their parts, described as a
  gestalt.
• Method was phenomenology, a subjective
  description of an external stimulus.

14
Laws of perceptual organization

• Parts group together based on their
  relationships.
• Parts that are (a) proximal, (b) similar, and
  form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go
  together.

15
Insight learning

• Initial attempts to solve a problem fail.
• Problem is put aside for some time.
• Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through
  unconscious processes, and is then verified.

Kohlers chimp incubates on a problem.
16
Psychoanalytic psychology

• Established by Sigmund Freud.
• Mind is made up of mini-minds that compete for
  control.
• Three states of consciousness
• Conscious
• Preconscious
• Unconscious

17
Psychoanalytic psychology

• In addition, three primary mental structures
• Id. Runs on the pleasure principle.
• Superego. Runs on the idealistic principle.
• Ego. Runs on the reality principle.

18
Behaviorism

• The mind of an organism (O) is a Black Box. It
  cannot be studied.
• Focus is instead on behaviors or responses (R).
• Responses can be controlled through stimuli (S).

19
Types of learning

• Classical conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus (US).
• Unconditioned response (UR).
• Conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Conditioned response (CR).

• Operant conditioning
• Reinforcement.
• Punishment.