Chapter 3 American Military Policy 1783-1860

1
Chapter 3American Military Policy1783-1860
2
Beginnings of Americas Professional Military

• Theory Reality in conflict
• Uneven military policy for first 75 years
• Militia favored in theory by majority of
  Americans
• Not supported in reality to fight its wars
• NTL US citizen soldiers held own in early going
• Native American Hostilities gt the push westward
• War of 1812 (with qualifications)
• Mexican War (1846-1847) gt (validates USMA)

3
Congress A Peacetime Army

• Role of Congress
• Lip Service paid to theory of citizen soldier
  Militia
• But no real support or funding for Militia
• Tacit acceptance of regular Army officer corps
• Congress initially rejects Washingtons Four
  point program proposal to establish a small
  professional standing army
• New Constitution allays many of Congresss
  concerns
• Washingtons model is finally adopted (with
  modification)
• USMA is established in 1802
• Gradually Officers view service as long life
  calling
• Result commit to longer careers
• Develop more serious professional outlook
• Form close relationships
• Institutional identity developed
• Military traditions take shape
• Honored by those who follow

4
Impact of French Revolution

• America ambivalent divided
• Praised revolutionary ideal vs. deplore radical
  excesses
• Divided primarily along party regional lines
• Jeffersons Democratic-Republicans for French
• Pro-democracy in line with core party principals
• Hamilton's Federalists for British
• Party for law order of a strong central
  government
• Official American Government position?
• Neutrality
• Economic impact
• Brits blockade French ports attack shipping at
  sea
• French employ Privateers raiders
• America trades with both is attacked by both

5
Impact of Royal Navy

• British Navy most effective in control of seas
• Capture 250 American Merchants trading with
  France
• Force America to agree to British treaty demands
• America promised to comply with British embargo
  terms
• Brits promise to abandon frontier posts they
  still occupy
• French reaction seize American ships
• America caught in middle (but Brits have upper
  hand)
• 1789-1800 undeclared Quasi-war with French
  ensues
• Congressional reaction
• Builds 54 warships makes USN first line of
  defense
• Also conducts operations against Barbary Pirates
  (SW)

6
War of 1812

• Background Overview
• Brits inflict greatest harm to US trade freedom
  of seas
• Embargo Act major failure very unpopular
• Political regional division (NE vs. SW) on war
• Strong British provocation impressments take
  toll
• Madison concludes war with Canada necessary
• Key way to get Britains attention freedom of
  the Seas
• America very divided and unprepared for war
• Congress declares war anyway
• War of 1812 summary (Map overview)gt

7
War of 1812 Map overview
8
War of 1812- Northern Theater Strategy

• Strategy formulated for invasion of Canada

Obstacles to executing above strategy?
9
Obstacles to Strategys Execution

• New England a major obstacle to its execution
• No political support for war
• No Militia mobilized by NE states for Federal
  Gov.
• NE Militia held for local use only
• West eager for war but lack logistics support
• Major challenge
• Administrative problems
• How to equip, feed, manage its Militia
• Impact on initial American Operations in North?

10
Initial American Operations

• Early American operations poorly supported
  executed
• Most result in disaster or are aborted
• American poor leadership, training, lack of
  coordination among commanders
• Courage lacking in some cases
• Gen William Hull surrenders 2000 at Detroit
• BG J. Winchester at Battle of Frenchtown
• British repel Americans go on offensive
• Capture Detroit threaten Michigan Ohio river
  valley
• On Niagara Front- mostly stalemate
• Few exceptions to American defeat
• Early US Navy Ops in ocean to protect American
  trade harass Brits
• Later in NW Perry at Put-in-Bay
• MG Harrison retook Detroit defeat Brits
  Tecumseh in Battle of Thames
• (Destroyed Brit-Indian alliance)

11
Major British Advantage

• British Control of the Sea
• Blockade American Ports for re-supply
  reinforcement
• British enjoy all above plus transportation
  operational support

12
British Strategy Operations

• Three major British Offenses conducted during
  war
• 1. Attempt from Canada via Lake Champlain
• But U. S. Navy blocks British advance
• Commodore Macdonough defeats British squadron on
  Lake Champlain
• With his LOC threatened, Gen Prevost orders his
  Army of 10K to return to Canada
• 2. Chesapeake Offense
• Burn Capitol White House
• Fail to seize key port of Baltimore (US
  privateer base)
• 3. Mississippi via New Orleans
• Jackson blocks defeats

13
2. British Chesapeake Offense

• 24 August Gen Ross, supported by Admiral
  Cockburn, attack defeat American force blocking
  British advance on Washington at Battle of
  Bladensburg
• Burn Capitol White House other public
  buildings around Washington then withdraw
• Ross then moves his Army up Chesapeake to
  threaten Baltimore
• 12 Sep he defeats US force at North Point
• Ross is killed by American sharpshooter
• A 25 hour Naval bombardment of Fort McHeny fails
  blocks British Navy advance to support Armys
  attack on Baltimore
• Our flag was still there Francis Scott Key
• Failure to seize key port of Baltimore enabled
  continued operation by privateers

14
3. Mississippi via New Orleans

• 50 British ships 5300 troops arrive 13 Dec 1814
  off New Orleans gulf coast from Jamaica
• Troops disembark to barges land on the Gulf
  coast
• To get to New Orleans Brits must get past
  Jacksons defenses south of city
• British attack Jacksons well fortified position
  are repulsed
• After several initial engagements Brit General
  Pakenham launches assault on Jan 1815 against
  main defense on East a secondary attack on West
  side held by Gen David Morgan
• Americans block repulse British
• British suffer 2000 CAS to 70 US
• Treaty of Ghent had officially ends war six weeks
  before
• Why do Brits decide to end the War?

15
Decision to End War of 1812

• Brits end war soon after Napoleon defeated
• Lake Champlain Offensive turned back by USN
• Brits conclude they cant win decisively
• Wellington Americans have no center of
  gravity
• Most important Napoleon defeated-
• Causi bellum eliminated
• Peace settlement (Treaty of Ghent)
• Status quo antebellum (?)
• Only real losers in War of 1812?
• Impact of war on American Military?

16
Post War Lessons Learned for Military

• American Army Navy status now secured
• NTL- Several flaws revealed as a result of war
• For Defense of Nation- Militia system is
  unreliable
• Regular Army better, but still plagued by
  problems
• Poor leadership during early stages of war
  identified
• Admin logistic support deficient
• War Department require major overhaul
• As result Nation makes first serious attempt to
  reform its Armed Forcesgt

17
Early Attempts at Professionalism

• Primary job of Military after 1815
• Frontier constabulary (primarily out West)
• Strategic purpose of military (IAW Congress
  priorities)
• 1. Defend Nation from invasiongt strong but small
  Navy
• Considered adequate for the job
• 2. Establish fortification system along coast
  inlets
• Objective Delay invaders until Militia formed
  and deployed
• Debate continues Militia vs. standing Army
• SECWAR John C. Calhouns proposed reforms
• Standing regular Army gt proposed Cardre system
• Army of 6313 readily expandable to 11,558
  Officers men
• Peacetime Units at half strength gt doubled in
  size of war
• Employ Federal Volunteers and 288 Officers to
  fill out billets

18
Reforms Impact on Officer Corp

• Army life becomes more stable
• Officers view army more as a career remain
  longer
• Take their profession of arms more seriously
• Military competence improves as its
  professionalized
• U. S. Military Academy revived and reformed
• Established standards and traditions
• Captain Thayer responsible for key reforms
• Acts as first superintendentgt 4 year curriculum
• Emphasis on Engineering and Math
• Established Cadet ranks to stress leadership

19
Other Professional Trends

• Other indicators of a more professional
  institution
• More efficient Bureau system established
• Also adopted the Navy
• Mid-grade professional military schools
• Arty at Fort Monroe Infantry at Fort
  Leavenworth
• Professional Journals on Tactics equip. reform
• Opened debate on how to improve Army (later Navy)
• Military support for Nations economic expansion
• Indian pacification out West
• Distracts from professional development
• Deepen harbors, survey turnpikes, Charts
  Navaids, exploration

20
Military Professionalism Politics

• Military professionalism from political
  standpoint
• Regular Army still suspect in eyes of many
  Americans
• Firm belief that any patriot can lead an army
  prevails
• Theoretical vice actual support for militia
  continues
• Poor uniform training, weapons, equipment
• Lack of adequate funding support from the states
• Volunteer Militia form to fill void but lack
  basic support
• Clubs and fraternal associations built around
  martial ceremony
• Mostly dash but potential source of manpower in
  emergency
• De facto reliance on small regular force in
  reality
• Citizen soldiers supplement regular army manpower
• Old attitude prevails patriots just as capable
  as pros

21
Mexican War - Map Overview
22
Mexican War (U.S. Strategy)

• Project Military power into North Mexico
• Concentrate on areas coveted by Polk admin
• Occupy California and New Mexico
• Hold Northern Mexican provinces as bargain
  chips
• Impose settlement on Mexico favorable to U.S.
• Aims of above strategy proved difficult to
  achieve
• Required modificationgt shift center of gravity
  south
• Also domestic politics intrudes into American FP
• Democrats and Southern region of U.S. for war
• Whigs anti-slave Democrats of NE against war
• Slavery becomes the underlying issue of Mexican
  War

23
Northern Campaign

• Gen Taylor crosses Rio Grande captures
  Matamoras
• Ordered by Polk to Monterrey
• Suffers heavy casualties
• Accepts 8 week Truce but forced by Polk to
  abrogate it
• By Dec 1846 Americans control Northern Mexico
• Including California and New Mexico
• Mexican reaction?
• Refuse to give in
• Recall American strategic aim?

24
Scotts Campaign (1847)

• US Grand Strategic aim find seize Mexicos
  center of gravity
• General Winfield Scotts campaign in South
• Scott lands 14K Army 300 USMC at Veracruz
  captures it
• Then marches 225 miles thru Sierra Madre to
  capture Mexico City
• (the new designated Mexican center of gravity)
• Effective tactics innovation employed
• Meticulous planning of professional USMA officer
  corps pays off
• Coordinated amphibious landing- surf boats built
  and used IAW plan
• Combat loaded equipment saves time
• Landing at Veracruz unopposed falls after brief
  siege

25
Battle of Cerro Gordo

• From Veracruz on to Mexico City
• 40 miles inland to west Army encounters Sierra
  Madre
• Rugged, rocky difficult path - perfect for
  enemy to interdict
• Santa Anna blocks Scotts path
• Scotts engineers recon search for way around
  to enemy rear
• Brief but sharp battle ensues-gt Mexicans fall
  back in disorder
• Santa Anna falls back in disarray later to hold
  another defensive choke point along route

26
Prelude to Final Assaults

• Following delay to accommodate departure of 7
  Regiments
• Volunteer enlistments up insist on returning
  home
• Scott continues on to Mexico City following delay
  
• Again encounters enemys attempt to block his
  path
• Innovative tactics work around blocking attempts
• Replay of Cerro Gordo again and again
• Close in on primary objective with confidence
• Army at its best and most effective to date

27
Final Assault- Mexico City

• Scott continues his advance
  into Mexico City
• Bombards then assaults Chapultepec Castle
• Mexican cadets try to defend
• Enemy battery is captured
• City falls 14 Sept 1847
• 11k US defeat 30K Mexicans
• Defeat well entrenched troops
• Modified strategy validated
• Center of gravity finally identified
• Major political impact
• US victory forces negotiations
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
• CA, NM, AZ to US

28
Results, Lessons Learned, significance

• Important firsts for American military forces
• Power projection abroad success
• Mobilize and maintain Army in foreign country
• Key role of US Navy
• Transport, support, re-supply (like Brits
  during 1812-14)
• Troops acquitted themselves well
• Defeat larger force acted with courage
• Officer leadership displayed (especially USMA
  grads)
• West Point training development paid off
• Especially Evident during Scotts campaign
• Tactically flexibility innovation of officer
  engineers
• Total American causalities 7700 Dead
• (6800 to disease/900 KIAs)

29
New Technological Developments Adaptations

• New energy invention application (sea land)
• Steam Engine applied to potential military use
• Railroad Steamship
• (Expand trade shorten time for transportation)
• Problems to overcome (, fuel, maintenance,
  payload)
• Inefficient use of energy Vulnerability
  (paddlewheel)
• Advances in Naval Artillery
• Dahlgrens 11 muzzle load smooth bore
• Modified coke bottle shape (absorb blast)
• Fired shell (wood) or solid shot
• Critical intermediate step on way to rifled arty
• Trend cannon on steamships (tactical link
  established)

30
Ordnance Weapons Advances

• Improvements in Army ordnance weapons
• Percussion cap eliminated priming
• Rifled Musket improved accuracy range
• Minnie ball solves problem of loading rifle
  quickly
• Army adopts rifled musket by mid-1850s
• Ignores tactical implications of increased
  range/fire rate
• Would pay heavy price as a result during Civil
  War

31
American Strategic Thought

• American Strategic Thought its limitations
• Dennis Hart Mahon West Points Napoleon Club
• (Jominis cookbook)
• Fortified active defense strategy tactics
• (then counterattack)
• Developed future leaders of Civil War (Hallack
  others)
• Keep troops concentrated alert for surprise
• Practical focus of most mid 19th century Military
  Officers
• Day to day nitty-gritty details of military
  tactics equipment
• Strategic Thought left to future strategist
• (especially for Navy in late 19th century (A. T.
  Mahan)

32
Overall Assessment

• Gradual progress toward standing Army
• Focus pacify western frontier Indians out West
• For War fill out Army with volunteers (Mexican
  War)
• Established coastal fortifications defend
  coasts
• Delay invader to permit time to mobilize

33
Overall Assessment- 2

• Technological improvements achieved
• Land officers prepared to exploit railroads
• To be applied successfully by Confederates at
  First Bull Run
• Adapted rifled musket with Minie ball
• Tactical Implications
• Army failed to appreciate tactical implications
  of rifle
• Smooth bore musket vs. rifled musket with Minie
  ball
• 100 vice 400 yard range with higher rate of fire
• Kill zone increased by factor of 4 higher
  casualties
• Especially without tactical adjustment to assault
  methods
• At Sea Steamships fitted w/Dahlgrens cannon
  mod.
• Transition link to bigger long range rifled guns
  on ships

34
Overall Assessment- 3

• USMA professional schools established
• Thayer reforms of 1820s improve officer quality
• Professional officer corps emerges
• Begin to think of Army as calling
• Officers view their profession as a career
• Think more about military art science as result
• Problems would remain
• Militia declined after 1815
• Attempts to fill gap with volunteer Militias
  martial clubs
• Amateur tradition alive well for Americans
• Civilian sentiment persisted over standing
  regular army
• Civil War would test amateur tradition theory
  to the limit
• Anybody can lead men in combat (At least until
  first shot fired)

35
Next Assignment The Civil War

• Back-up Slides

36
Forming Peacetime Military (1783-1846)

• Factors Pro Con for peacetime military
• Federalists Party support strong central
  government
• Requires strong professional National force
• Washingtons Four point program proposal
• 1. Establish small regular Army
• 2. Establish Militia under Federal Government
  control
• Two tiers Ready Volunteers and Common Militia
• 3. Establish arsenals armament factories
• 4. Establish Military Academies to foster
  military science
• Congressional Response
• Rejects Hamiltons endorsement disbands
  Continental Army
• Forms First American Regiment (700 Militia with 1
  yr enlistments)

37
Washingtons Model Prevails

• Washingtons model shaped US land force by early
  1800s
• Still limited Federal control over militia
• No volunteer or Federal Select militia act passed
• Resultgt emergency requires 90 day mobilization
• Also no uniform Federal standards imposed on
  militia
• Impact- State Militias suffer
• Training, organization, regulations, equipment

38
U. S. Constitution to the Rescue

• Constitutions impact- solves problem
• Eliminates weak confederation government
• Article 1 gives Congress power over military
• Alleviates Congress concern of Presidential
  power
• Divided power between Congress President
• Checks and Balances Division of Authority
• Congress given most explicit power to control
  military
• (see section 8 of Article 1 of Constitution)
• Reserves control of Militia to the States (not
  Feds)
• Congress established system of arsenals arms
• 1802 U. S. Military Academy established

39
Mexican War (Prelude)

• Background U.S. Foreign Policy- manifest destiny
• Goal all of North America
• Louisiana Purchase from Napoleon
• Florida from Spain
• Oregon Territory split with Brits in 1849
  compromise
• US long covets southwest owned by Mexico
• Opportunity presents itself
• After Texas Revolutiongt
• Texans apply for statehood
• Annexed by US in 1845
• Impact on US/Mex relations?

40
Mexican War (US Plans, Preparation)

• American Plans Prep much improved since 1812
• President Polk directs MG Taylor to deploy to
  south Texas border
• CA Agents, Freemont scouts, US Navy also
  pre-position
• Take strategic positions on, around, and off West
  Coast of CA

41
Mexican War (Battle of Palo Alto- May 1946)

• Disposition of forces
• Zac Taylor with 2300 vs. Arista with 6000
• Offsetting Mexican numbers
• Strong leadership of professional officer corps
  (USMA)
• Mexican assaults w/smooth bore muskets bronze
  cannon
• Versus American cannon fire from fortified
  position
• Battle Execution
• Arista makes two failed frontal attacks then
  withdraws
• Mexican cavalry attempts to flank American
  position
• Piecemeal attacks allows Taylor to shift forces
  to plug holes via tactical LOCs
• Taylors Arty in strong defensive positions
  suppress assaults Arista withdraws his forces
• Battle damage assessment (BDA)
• American hold field at cost of 200 causalities
• Mexicans withdraw after suffering 1600 casualties
  (cas.)

42
Battle of Buena Vista (1847)

• Meanwhile Santa Anna returns from exile in Cuba
• Assumes CINC, then Mexican Presidency
• Taylor establishes defensive position with 5K
  troops at Buena Vista
• Santa Anna attacks 22-23 Feb 1847
• Taylor employs shuttle tactics on interior lines
• Again- Plugs holes made by assaulting Mexicans
  attacking with smooth bore muskets
• Americans hold as a result of their effective use
  of cannon direct fire against attackers
• Santa Anna withdraws w/2K cas. vs .700 US cas.
• Strategic significance of Buena Vista ???
• Was this battle consistent with achieving U.S.
  aim?

43
Final Assaults

• Scott commences operations w/recon to probe
• Search vulnerable points in Santa Annas defenses
• Employs tactical surprise (deploys arty across
  Pedregal)
• Scott opens attack w/effective field arty
  bombardment
• Shocks Mexican infantry attacks flanks
• Exploits gaps in enemy defenses
• Any exception to this tactical approach?

44
Battle of Molino del Ray

• Notable exception
• Battle of Molino del Ray
• Frontal assault cost Scott 25 casualties- high
  cost victory
• American self confidence individual courage
  carry day
• Also Mexican infantry armed with older muskets
• Less range and slower rate of fire