Module 5

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Module 5
The Making of the Middle East 1912-1923
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The War in Kosovo March 1999 The most recent
legacy of the history of the Ottoman Empire For
internet coverage of the war see addresses in
Resources
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from The Edmonton Journal, Saturday March 27,
1999
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from The Edmonton Journal, Saturday March 27,
1999
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from The Edmonton Journal, Friday March 26
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Playing at war
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• North Africa Map
• Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli under Ottoman Beys
• most important for flows of slaves
• 1830, Algiers occupied by French -- beginning
• of colonial rule which would last over a
  century
• resistance continued, drawing French futher into
• interior, into Sahara and its oases
• resistance jihad organized by Berber leader
• Abd al-Kader bases formed along frontier with
• Morocco (independent) drew Morocco into fray
• (1912 Morocco became French protectorate)
• Tunis, Tripoli Britians anti-slaving efforts
  off the
• coast drew its influence into region
  established
• councils in ports, developed commercial
  interests

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Slave Routes into Ottoman Empire, 19th Century
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• Egypt see Tutorial 5B
• ruled by Albanian-born soldier Muhammed Ali
  Pasha
• controlled the Mamluks, ostensibly as
  representative
• of the Sultan
• began to carve out personal fiefdom, extending
• rule into Sudan used Khartoum as base for
  river
• navy and army troops
• financing expansion through trade in slaves and
  ivory
• commited to modernization and industrialization
• sought European (especially French) investment
• fought on Sultans behalf against Wahhabism in
• Arabian perninsula Greece (unsuccessful)
• 1830s allied with emir of Lebanon took control
  of
• Syria, threatened Istanbul
• led to Ottoman-Russian alliance to re-take Syria

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Muhammad Ali (1769-1849) the modernizing vicero
y of Egypt
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• Egypt cont
• as troops mutinied, joined Muhammed Ali, Britain
  
• and Austria entered to push him back into Egypt
• and relieve Ottoman sultan of need for
  Russian help
• settlement Muhammed Ali given hereditary right
• to rule Egypt (although still paying tribute)
  and
• European powers, through Ottoman connection,
• given foothold in North East Africa
• after death 1849 commercialization of
  agriculture
• continued, giving rise to new class of
  landowners
• British built railroad from Alexandria to Red
  Sea
• 1850s, Muhammed Alis grandson, Ismail
  negotiated
• with French to build canal across same piece of
  land
• Suez Canal opened 1869 joint Egyptian-French
  control

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Ismail, child grandson of Muhammed Ali
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• Egypt cont.
• under Ismail, era of modernization,
  westernization
• and massive immigration of Europeans
• colonial expansion to south continued policy of
• destabilization more than control
• progress meant debt, much like Istanbuls
  situation
• Ismail forced to sell Egypts shares of Suez to
  British
• 1878, British and French cabinet ministers
  appointed
• 1881 Public Debt Administration extended
  authority
• to Egypts finances as well
• situation bred resistance al-Afghani and
  followers
• resistors gained political influence violence,
  riots
• British occupied 1882 still ostensibly
  Ottoman with
• Khedive as ruler but temporary occupation
  lasted
• until 1956 and the arrival of Nasser

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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• Sudan Map
• nationalism generated in this region also had
  strong
• religious base
• reistance to Egyptian colonialism gave rise to
  jihad
• of Muhammad Ahmad, claiming to the Mahdi
• see reading The Mahdi letters and
  proclamations,
• on Reserve
• sought and gained widespread support Egypt
  threatened
• 1883, force of 10,000 British send against
  Mahdists
• destroyed soon after Khartoum also taken by
• Mahdist soldiers
• took two-year campaign 1896-8 to supress and
  kill
• Muhammed Ahmad
• brought British into control of region deal
  negotiated
• with French for divided influence

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Colonial powers in Africa, 19th
C. (pre-1880) Note extensive area under
Egypts control, regarded as imperial or colonial
from perspective of other African regimes
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British Troops, Khartoum (Sudan)
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Mahdist Troops, Sudan (1880s)
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• The Fertile Crescent Map
• Muhammed Alis occupation Syria earlier in the
  
• century exacerbated Muslim- Christian conflict
• Maronites (Christians) and Druzes in region
• Mt. Lebanon also in conflict sultan
  intervened
• see Text on web for more detail
• by 1860s, spread into Syria igniting Muslim-
• Christian tensions full scale war
• 1861, French intervened and sultan accepted
• peacekeeping process
• gave French their foothold in the region which
• later became a claim to territory
• Ottoman sultan unable to manage at a time when
• empire engaged in wars with Russia and
  battling
• bankrupcy

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The Fertile Crescent c. 1914
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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• The Fertile Crescent
• 1850s-1870s Syria home to several groups of
• nationalists
• some were more anti Ottoman than pro
  anything
• others clearly pro-arab eg. al-Kawabakis book
• calling for an Arab Caliph -- distinction being
  made
• between the current Muslim Turks (Ottomans)
  and
• Muslim Arabs
• general view that Ottomans had been responsible
  for
• retrograde position Muslims widely held in
  region
• 1905 Palestinean Christian, Azouri, stressed
• importance of unity Muslim-Christians against
  Turks
• Arab Sultan as consitutional ruler, Arab Caliph
  to
• lead Islamic world

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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• The Fertile Crescent
• even at turn of century, movements had limited
• appeal
• rise of Turkish nationalism, marked by
  revolution
• led by CUP 1908, gave new impetus
• Turkism versus Arabism articulated in govt
• policies banning of Arab-Ottoman Brotherhood,
• declaration Turkish as official language of
  parliament
• Syria centre of heightened nationalist activity
• others flourished in exile eg. al-Fatat
  (Youth)
• al-Ahd (the Covenant) calling for
  Arab-Turkish
• monarchy
• meetings in Paris to which CUP sent
  representative
• in 1913 yielded no change in Ottoman govt

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Towards the end colonialism and imperialism

• The Fertile Crescent
• distinct from these movements were the various
• tribes of the Arabian peninsula
• always true to traditional autonomy, tribes
  like
• Hasimites (sharifs) from Mecca resented
  Istanbuls
• attempts to centralize control
• most of period 1890s-1908, Sharif of Mecca,
• Husayn, held in house arrest in Istanbul
• Husayn successfully rallied regional support in
  Hijaz
• his son, member of new parliament, secretly
  sought
• British support for resistance to (old) Ottoman
• regime
• British not yet ready to intervene
• 1914 in spite of nationalist and secessionalist
• movements in cresent and peninsula -- region
  still loyal
• to the sultan and the Ottoman empire

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Towards the end The Balkan Wars 1912-1913

• between 1905-1911, Britain, Germany, France
• contesting influence in Morocco
• negotiations precluded conflict Morocco became
• French Protectorate 1912
• Italy attcked Libya 1911 in fear of French
  intentions
• Ottomans weak, Italy successful
• other Balkan states encouraged to break away
• 1912 Bulgaria, Greec, Montenegro and Serbia
• attacked Ottomans victorious
• internal difficulties lead to second war against
  
• Serbia (Turkey joined in) Serbia lost much of
• territory gained in 1878

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The Balkans Wars 1912-1913
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Towards the end The Balkan Wars 1912-1913

• 1913 international conference called to resolve
• differences between Austria and Serbia
• conference favoured Austrian concerns, called
• for independent Albania
• Serbia refused to withdraw, finally did so in
  1913
• under ultimatum from Austria
• pressure increasing in Russia to enter
  pan-slav
• union with Serbia resisted
• many lessons learned which influenced behaviour
• in 1914

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World War I and the Ottoman Empire

• clear why Ottomans implicated in WWI, but
• why did they chose the side of the Central
  Powers?
• - capitulations
• - British seizure of Ottoman ships
• - German industrialization
• - German overtures Kaiser Wilhelm II
• becomes al-Hajj Muhamad Wilhelm

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World War I (1914 - 1918)
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World War I and British activities Egypt

• concern for the Suez British declared Egypt
• protectorate
• Khdive (who had supported nationalists)
• removed replaced by uncle who took title
• sultan, marking definitive break with
  Ottomans
• impact of the war
• - peasants uprooted
• - forced labour
• - European troops
• - food and transport requisitions

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World War I and British activities Egypt

• impact of War on nationalism Sad Zaghlul
• see text Father of the Egyptians
• most striking Egyptian nationalism was not
• part of wider Arab nationalism
• Ottomans had been seen as safeguard against
• excessive British influence, but Arab alliance
• with Allies during the war seen as treachery
• to Islam
• Egypt felt it had little in common with
• Fertile Crescent

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World War I the Fertile crescent and the Arabs

• conflict in Britain as to policy re Fertile
  Crescent
• - London supported Shaikh Husayn
• - India Office supported Gulf Princes
• Emir Abul al-Aziz Ibn Saud
• Map
• London policy followed
• Husayn-MacMahon correspondence 1915-1916
• - Arabs would enter the War on side of British
• - promise of Arab independence following
• war
• - promise to accept continuing British
• influence in region (15 years)
• dispute continued over boundaries of new
  kingdom

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Lawrence of Arabia British support in the 1916
Revolt launched by Shaikh Husayn and his son
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The End of the Ottoman Empire
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World War I the Fertile crescent and the Arabs

• Ibn Saud (leader Wahhabi movement) asisted
• allies by battling Ottoman ally, Rashidi
  dynasty
• separate treaties arranged with him and other
• princes of southern Arabia -- secret from
• agreement with Shaikh Husayn
• Map

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World War I and the Secret Agreements

• Constantinople Agreement 1915
• British and French negotiated with Russians
• Russia laying claim to Instanbul and
  territories
• which would assure control of Straits
• extension of earlier agreement (1907) to divide
• Iran into shperes of influence
• London Agreement 1915
• Italy promised southwestern Anatolia to enter
  the war
• Greece wanted European Turkey and parts of
  Anatolia
• Sykes-Picot Agreement 1916-1917
• Britain, France Russia extended partition for
  Russia
• partitioned Fertile Crescent -- contrary to
  agreement
• with Shaikh Husayn

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The Secret Partition of Turkey (The Ottoman
Empire)
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World War I and the Secret Agreements

• much concern for how much influence French
• would retain claims to Syria seen as
  strategic
• threat to British and Suez canal
• Sykes-Picot called for large part of Palestine
  to
• be administered Internationally (including
  Holy Places)
• rumours of this agreement widespread
• as late as 1917, Shaikh Husayn assured that
  French
• inluence would be limited to coast and advisors
• underscored shock and (justifiable) feeling of
• betrayal when details of Agreement revealed by
• new Bolshevik regime in Russia following
  Revolution.

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World War I and the Balfour Declaration 1917
see text

• refer to discussion of Balfour Declaration in
• Tutorial 5a
• part of informal correspondence between
• James Balfour and British Zionist Federation
• later written into the official Mandate for
• Palestine
• fed sense of betrayal
• further fueled by promises of American
• President Wilsons 14 points see Text
• Americans had little influence, few of these
• points accepted
• from Arab point of view, war effort had been
• in vain and the Western Allies were no longer
  to
• be trusted or supported

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Sharif Husayn of Hijaz
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Ibn Saud with Sir Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell
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Mustaph Kemal during the war of Independence