Blue Sky State University EPSY 350: Instructional Design

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Blue Sky State UniversityEPSY 350 Instructional
Design
Motivational Considerations in the Design of
Instruction
Applying Theories of Motivation to Improve
Learning Performance
Anthony R. Artino, Jr. Department of Educational
Psychology
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Are You Motivated?
Retrieved February 2, 2007, from
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Where Weve Been
and Where Were Going
Systematic Design of Instruction
Theories of Learning
AnalyzeTask
Goals/Objectives
ConstructivistPerspectives
AnalyzeContext
Design Instructional Strategies
Theories of Motivation
ConsiderMotivationin the Designof Strategies
AnalyzeLearners
For VariousLearningOutcomes

• Expectancy-Value Models
• Social Cognitive Theory
• Attribution Theory
• Goal Orientation Theory
• Self-Determination Intrinsic Motivation
• Interest Affect

KellersARCS Modellinks motivationtheory to ID
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Overview

• What is Motivation?
• Why Should We Care?
• Motivational Influences on Learning
  Performance
• Theories of Motivation
• Review of Contemporary Theories
• Instructional Implications
• Systematic Motivational Design
• Kellers ARCS Model

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Motivation Defined

• How would you define motivation? What is it?
• Derived from Latin verb movere (to move)
• There are many definitions (product process)
• what moved a resting organism to a state of
  activity (Weiner, 1990, p. 617)
• a willingness, desire, or condition of arousal
  or activation (Anderman Wolters, 2006, p. 369)
• the process whereby goal-directed activity is
  instigated and sustained (Pintrich Schunk,
  2002, p. 5)
• an internal state that arouses, directs, and
  maintains behavior (Woofolk, 2007, p. 372)

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But There is Disagreement

• It depends on your theoretical perspective
• Drive Theory
• Internal forces act to maintain homeostasis
• Behavioral Theories
• Reinforcements sustain or increase behaviors
• Humanistic Theories
• Individuals have choices and seek control over
  their lives
• Cognitive Social Cognitive Theories
• Students cognition (mental structures and
  processing of information) guide their motivation
• Emphasis on students thoughts, beliefs, and
  emotions
• (Pintrich Schunk, 2002)

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How Do We Know When Someone Is Motivated?

• We infer it from behavioral indicators
• Choice of Tasks
• Latency
• How long it takes before an individual initiates
  activity
• Effort
• How hard a person works at the activity
• Persistence
• How long the individual is willing to work at the
  activity
• Achievement
• Students who engage in a task, expend effort, and
  persist are likely to achieve at a higher level
• (Graham Weiner, 1996 Pintrich Schunk, 2002)

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
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/motivation.jpg
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Why Should We Care?How is Motivation Related to
Learning?

• Motivation can influence what, when, and how we
  learn (Pintrich Schunk, 2002, p. 6)
• Students who are motivated
• Attend more carefully to instruction
• Mentally organize, rehearse, elaborate info to
  be learned
• Check their level of understanding
• Ask for help when they dont understand
• Taken together, these activities improve learning
  and performance!

Mediating Cognitive Behavioral Activities
and the relationship is reciprocal
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Contemporary Theories of Motivation
TheirImplications for Instruction
Our Focus Today

• Expectancy-Value Models
• Social Cognitive Theory
• Attribution Theory
• Goal Orientation Theory
• Self-Determination Intrinsic Motivation
• Interest Affect

Retrieved February 2, 2007, from
www.cartoonbank.com
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Instructional Vignette

• Mary Im really enjoying this course. Its very
  interesting, and I think it will be very useful
  for me in my future career. I hope to be a
  doctor someday!
• Jim Really? I think its extremely boring.
  Besides, Im not really getting all the
  concepts, and I dont think Im going to do very
  well on the test. I prefer history class to this
  stuff.
• Mary Well, Im not very good in history. Its
  just not that important to me. Ill stick with
  math and science.
• (Adapted from Pintrich Schunk, 2002)
• What kinds of things are these students
  discussing?
• How do they relate to motivation?

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Expectancy-Value ModelsTheory Overview
InterestIm interestedin this topic
CostIf I do this Icannot do that
-

Achievement Behaviors Students choice
behaviors, cognitive engagement, persistence,
and performance
ExpectancyAm I able to do well in this task?
Task ValueWhy should I do this task?
X



Utility ValueThis topic isuseful for me
ImportanceThis topic isimportant to me
(Eccles Wigfield, 2002)
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Expectancy-Value ModelsInstructional Implications

• Expectancy
• Help students maintain accurate but high
  expectations for success
• Use examples of students past success
• Use peer models
• Build students confidence
• Provide opportunities for success (mastery
  experiences)
• Give accurate feedback
• Emphasize that competence is changeable and
  controllable

• Task Value
• Make value explicit
• Embed tasks in real-world (maybe even
  controversial) issues
• Discuss importance and utility value as it
  relates to these issues
• Model personal interest and value
• Activate interest
• Provide opportunities for choice and control w/in
  instruction

(Bransford et al., 2000 Pintrich Schunk, 2002)
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Social Cognitive TheoryOverview

• Key Theoretical Components
• Self-Efficacy
• beliefs in ones capability to organize and
  execute the courses of action required to produce
  given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p. 3)
• Developed through
• Mastery experiences
• Vicarious experiences
• Verbal persuasion
• Physiological states
• Social Modeling
• Self-Regulated Learning

Person(cognition, affect, motivational beliefs,
biological events)
reciprocal causation
Environment (physical socio-cultural)
Behavior
Behavior is a product of both self-generated and
external sources of influence (Bandura, 1986,
p. 454)
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Social Cognitive TheoryInstructional Implications

• Build self-efficacy
• Provide opportunities for enactive mastery
  experiences
• Employ successful models (see next slide)
• Give positive, yet realistic feedback
• Overly optimistic feedback tends to be
  ineffective
• Embed realistic, challenging, proximal goals into
  instruction

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Social Cognitive TheoryInstructional
Implications cont

• Use social modeling
• Competent, credible, enthusiastic, and similar
  models
• Model personal interest and value (instructor
  enthusiasm)
• Develop self-regulated learning skills
• Explicit instructional prompts for
• Rehearsal, organization, and elaboration
• Provide chances for self-appraisal and reflection
• Model metacognition
• Make visible the instructors thinking processes
• (Driscoll, 2005)

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Instructional Vignette

• Roy is an average student, but algebra isnt his
  best subject. Sam is one of the best students and
  usually gets As and occasionally Bs on his
  algebra assignments.
• The teacher returns a recent assignment to both
  students. Roy didnt do too well, and as he looks
  it over it he thinks, What did I do wrong here?
  I just dont get this stuff. It seems so abstract
  and its hard to see how it relates to anything
  meaningful. I just cant do this, its too hard
  for me. I think Im just not cut out for math.
• Sam also had problems on the homework. As he
  reviews it, he thinks, I dont understand this,
  so Ill have to ask the teacher about this
  problem. Maybe Im just not studying hard enough.
  Ill have to go back to my notes and review this
  again. He increases the amount of time he spends
  studying for algebra.
• (Adapted from Pintrich Schunk, 2002)
• What kinds of things are these students
  discussing?
• How do they relate to motivation?

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Attribution TheoryOverview
Locus
Internal
External
Controllable
Uncontrollable
Controllable
Uncontrollable
Stable

• Aptitude

• Long-term effort

• Instructor bias/favoritism

• Ease/difficulty of school or course
  requirements

Stability

• Health onday of exam
• Mood

Unstable

• Skills/knowledge
• Temporary orsituational efforton exam

• Help from friends/instructor

• Chance

(Adapted from Weiner, 1986, as cited in Pintrich
Schunk, 2002)

• Achievement attributions classified by
• Locus (internal/external to the person)
• Stability (relatively stable/unstable over time)
• Controllability (controllable/uncontrollable by
  the person)

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Attribution TheoryInstructional Implications

• Provide accurate feedback
• Deemphasize ability
• The Im just not smart attitude
• An emphasis on effort after student failures
  usually leads to more adaptive attributes
• Effort is unstable, internal, and controllable
  (Schunk Zimmerman, 2006)
• If effort was high, emphasize lack of skills/
  knowledge
• Unstable factors
• Can be learned with effort

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Goal OrientationTheory Overview

• Explicitly developed to explain achievement
  behavior
• Why do students engage in achievement behaviors
  and how they approach academic tasks?

Avoid
Approach

• Focus on mastering task,learning, understanding
• Use of standards of self-improvement, progress,
  deep understanding

• Focus on avoiding misunderstanding
• Use of standards of not being wrong, not doing
  itincorrectly

Mastery Orientation

• Focus on avoiding inferiority, not looking
  stupid or dumb in comparison to others
• Use of normative standardsof not being lowest
  performer

• Focus on being superior,besting others, being
  the smartest
• Use of normative standardssuch as getting the
  highest grade, being top performer

Performance Orientation
(Adapted from Pintrich Schunk, 2002)
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Goal OrientationInstructional Implications

• Create positive goal structures
• Emphasize mastery (learning and understanding),
  not performance
• Students apt to adopt mastery-orientation
  (Anderman Wolters, 2006)
• Ensure assessment is private, not public
• Minimizes social comparisons

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
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Self-Determination Intrinsic MotivationTheory
Overview

• Integrates needs with social-cognitive
  constructs (Pintrich, 2003)
• Self-determination is
• using ones capability to choose how to satisfy
  ones needs (Schunk Zimmerman, 2006, p. 359)
• Intrinsic motivation increases when learners are
  self-determined

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Self-Determination Intrinsic MotivationTheory
Overview
Learning Performance


Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic Motivation
Unmotivated
motivationcontinuum
motivationcontinuum

Self-Determined Learner
Three Basic Innate Psychological Needs
CompetenceThe need to feel competentin
interactions with others,tasks and activities,
andlarger contexts
AutonomyThe need to feel a sense of control,
agency, orautonomy in interactionswith
environment
RelatednessThe need to belong to agroup
(affiliation)
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Self-Determination Intrinsic
MotivationInstructional Implications

• Avoid external rewards for intrinsically
  motivated students
• Can undermined intrinsic motivation
• Enhance intrinsic motivation
• Challenge students
• Intermediate difficulty activities
• Prompt curiosity
• Present slightly discrepant ideas
• Provide learner control and choice
• Engage students in fantasy, games, simulations

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
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ds1.jpg
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Instructional Vignette

• John Im really fed up. None of my students
  have any interest in the training. They just
  dont care. Some of them even seem angry that
  they have to be here. I overheard one student
  yesterday talking about his frustration with the
  whole training program.
• Teri Well, I dont know. I do have some students
  who at least are interested in the training.
  When I hear them talk in class, some of them
  seem to like it.
• Tony Yeah, my guys seem relatively interested
  too, but the problem I have is that some of them
  just get so wound up about the exams that they
  bomb the test. You can just see them getting
  nervous before the test, and during it you can
  seem them wriggling around. Im just not sure
  what to do.
• (Adapted from Pintrich Schunk, 2002)
• What kinds of things are these instructors
  discussing?
• How do they relate to motivation?

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Interest AffectOverview

• Interest
• Three Types
• Characteristic of Person
• Personal
• Characteristic of Context
• Situational
• Psychological State
• Personal x Situational
• Positively Influences
• Choice, persistence, effort
• Attention
• Use of deep processing
• Performance

• Affect
• Moods Emotions
• Academic Emotions
• Positive
• Enjoyment, hope, pride
• Negative
• Test anxiety, frustration, boredom
• Positively/Negatively Influence
• All the same processes

(Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, Perry, 2002)
(Krapp, Hidi, Renninger, 1992)
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Interest AffectInstructional Implications

• Interest
• Use original source material with authentic
  content
• Model enthusiasm and interest
• Use variety, novelty, surprise
• Provide some choice based on personal interest
• Build/integrate students personal interests into
  lessons

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
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mage.jpg
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Interest AffectInstructional Implications

• Affect
• Provide plenty of time for assessments
• Order test items from easy to difficult
• Minimize social comparisons
• Emphasize mastery (learning and understanding),
  not performance
• Make course value/relevance explicit

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
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Recurring Themes Instructional Implications
Note Research in multimedia and hypermedia
learning environments has revealed that too much
learner control can hinder learning and
performance, particularly for low ability
learners and/or novices who lack domain knowledge
(Clark Feldon, 2005 Lawless Brown, 1997).
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Systematic Motivational DesignKellers ARCS Model

• A systematic, step-by-step approach to designing
  motivational tactics into instruction
• Integrates well with traditional ID/ISD processes
• ARCS steps include
• Analyze the Audience
• Define Motivational Objectives
• Design a Motivational Strategy
• Implement and Revise

Traditional ID/ISD Processes(ADDIE Model)
Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from
http//edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC700/ETP/images/
addie.jpg
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Systematic Motivational DesignKellers ARCS Model

• Based on four dimensions of motivation (Keller,
  1999)

A

• Attention
• Capturing the interest of learners
• Stimulating the curiosity of learners
• Sound familiar?

R

• Relevance
• Meeting the personal needs/goals of learners to
  effect a positive attitude
• Sound familiar?

C

• Confidence
• Helping learners believe/feel that they will
  succeed and they control their success
• Sound familiar?

S

• Satisfaction
• Reinforcing accomplishments with rewards
  (internal and external)

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Systematic Motivational DesignIn-Class Activity
Using Kellers ARCS Model

• Case 1 A course in educational psychology is
  required of all persons seeking teacher
  certification in the state. Most of the students
  are juniors and seniors in the Universitys
  teacher preparation program. A few come from
  programs outside of education, and a few have
  already taken and failed the teacher
  certification test. The course will be delivered
  as a traditional, face-to-face class and will
  also use WebCT for online discussions and
  debates.
• Case 2 A literacy course is offered to farmers
  in an underdeveloped nation. The course is run
  in the evening and is populated by both men and
  women from the ages of 15 to 61. None of the
  students can read.
• (Adapted from Driscoll, 2005)

Using the table on the next slide, conduct an
abbreviated motivational analysis. Determine the
motivational issues and design some tactics to
address them.
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Systematic Motivational DesignMotivational
Analysis Matrix
(Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41)
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Systematic Motivational DesignMotivational
Analysis Matrix
Example of How Cells Are Filled Using ARCS Model
(unrelated scenario)
(Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41)
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Summary

• What is Motivation?
• Why Should We Care?
• Motivational Influences on Learning
  Performance
• Theories of Motivation
• Review of Contemporary Theories
• Instructional Implications
• Systematic Motivational Design
• Kellers ARCS Model

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References

• Anderman, E. M., Wolters, C. A. (2006). Goals,
  values, and affect Influences on student
  motivation. In P. A. Alexander P. H. Winne
  (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd
  Ed., pp. 369-389). Mahwah, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum
  Associates.
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought
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• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy The exercise
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• Bransford, J. D, Brown, A. L., Cocking, R. R.
  (2000). How people learn Brain, mind,
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• Clark, R. E., Feldon, D. F. (2005). Five common
  but questionable principles of multimedia
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• Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning
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• Graham, S., Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and
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  psychology (pp. 63-84). New York Simon
  Schuster Macmillan.

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References

• Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational
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  distance education. New Directions in Teaching
  and Learning, 78, 39-47.
• Krapp, A., Hidi, S., Renninger, K. A. (1992).
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