Chapter 4 Motivation Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport

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Motivation
SPORT PSYCHOLOGYChapter 4
Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport Psychology
Contemporary Themes (Palgrave Macmillan,
Basingstoke)
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Introduction, History and Development

• There has been a longstanding concern with
  motivation in both psychology and sport
• Theory and practice still dont always coincide
• Motivation is commonly defined as Psychological
  processes that energise the individual and
  thereby influence behaviour.
• Despite being an important topic it is a
  regrettable fact that motivation is a poorly
  understood phenomenon in the trenches.... nowhere
  is the concept of motivation more misunderstood
  than in sport. Roberts (1992, p.4)

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Introduction, History and Development

• Drive theory
• Hull (1951) Spence (1956)
• Need Achievement Theory
• NAch (Ms MAF)(Ps x Is) Mext
• McClelland (1961) and Atkinson (1964)
• Sport Orientation Questionnaire
• Gill, 1993

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Introduction, History and Development

• Weiners Attribution Theory (1985, 1986)
• We explain success failure with reference to
  ability, effort, task and luck

Basic Attribution Categories
Stability
Causality
Controllability
Stable
Unstable
Internal
External
In Ones Control
Out of Ones Control
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Introduction, History and Development

• Two key questions
• Why do we participate in sport?
• Why do we withdraw from sport?

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Introduction, History and Development

• 1. Motivators of Participation
• Fun enjoyment, pleasure, psychological benefits
• Affiliation social experience, friendship,
  significant others
• Competence personal challenge, skill
  acquisition/ improvement
• Fitness health, weight loss, strength, improve
  appearance
• Success competition or personal accomplishment
• Motivators can often change over time

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Introduction, History and Development

• 2. Demotivators of Participation
• Other interests conflict of alternative
  activities
• Lack of improvement in skill lack of progress
• Lack of fun boredom, playing time
• Time pressure increased time taken up by
  practice and competition
• Excessive pressure from coach, parents and peers
• Can be temporary or permanent
• Can be at a particular level or total rejection

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Introduction, History and Development

• There have been great many descriptive studies
  into demotivation (who, what, where and how)
• e.g. drop out and attrition rates in adolescence
• Adherence to exercise programmes
• There have been fewer theoretical investigations
  (why)
• e.g. how both psychological and structural
  variables interact to determine both
  participation and drop out

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Theories and Models 1

• Self-determination Theory or Cognitive Evaluation
  Theory
• (Deci,1971 Fredrick Ryan, 1995)
• Individuals have the need to demonstrate
  competence and self-determination in life
  domains, including sport 
• Central concepts intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
  motivation, amotivation
• Intrinsic motivation influenced by degree of
  autonomy or self-determination
• Self-determination operationalized as Locus of
  Causality (LoC)
• Internal LoC - higher perceived control, enhanced
  intrinsic motivation
• External LoC - low perceived control, decreased
  intrinsic motivation

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Theories and Models 1

• Vallerand Losier (1999) have represented
  self-determination theory in a hierarchical model
• Social Factors (success, failure, competition,
  co-operation, coach behaviour and parental
  influence) exert their influence through
  perceptions of autonomy, competence and
  relatedness
• The consequences of motivation can be
• Affective (I feel)
• Behavioural (I do)
• Cognitive (I think)

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Theories and Models 1

• Continuum of Self-determination
• Ext LoC Int LoC
• Amotivation Extrinsic Mot Intrinsic Mot
• (Deci Ryan, 1985)

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Theories and Models 2

• Perceived Competence Theory (Harter, 1978)
• Motivation influenced by perceptions of
  competence and control
• We are motivated to participate to display
  competence or mastery
• An activity can be too easy/difficult or a
  challenge.
• Easy and difficult tasks provide little
  information on ones mastery or skill and add
  little to perceptions of competence
• The optimal challenge is difficult and demanding
  but attainable

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Theories and Models 2

• Mastery attempts are used to receive feedback on
  competence. This information then influences
• Perceived competence
• Perceived control
• Affective responses
• Future exertion/effort
• Probability of continued participation

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Theories and Models 2
Drop-out
Mastery Attempts
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Theories and Models 2

• Perceived success
• can be defined either internally or externally
• results in intrinsic pleasure and raises
  competence
• increases achievement striving behaviour
• Perceived failure
• can be defined either internally or externally
• results in dissatisfaction and perceived
  incompetence
• encourages fewer mastery attempts

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Theories and Models 2

• Coaches, teachers, parents and peers can
  influence perceived competence
• Females rely more on feedback from significant
  others
• Athletes who receive corrective information see
  it as reflecting lower ability
• Athletes who receive praise see it as a
  reflection of high ability

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Theories and Models 3

• Achievement Goal Orientation (GO) Theory
• (Nicholls, 1984)
• Currently the most popular approach in motivation
  literature within sport psychology
• Proposes that motivational affect, behaviour and
  cognition can be understood in terms of two goal
  perspectives ego and task
• Goal Orientations are thought to be influenced by
  both situational and dispositional factors
• Both goal orientations are independent e.g.
• High Task, Low Ego - Low Task, High Ego
• High Task, High Ego - Low Task, Low Ego

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Theories and Models 3

• Task Orientation
• Self-referenced reasons for participation
• skill development, skill mastery, affiliation,
  fitness
• Typical behaviours
• persistence, optimal effort
• work hard
• choose challenging activities
• seek feedback

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Theories and Models 3

• Ego Orientation
• Normative referenced reasons for participation
• Recognition, competition, social status
• Typical behaviours
• perception of high ability
• careful selection of activities avoid failure
• little effort during practice

NB Both orientations find competition meaningful
it is the meaning attached to competition that
distinguishes them
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Theories and Models 3

• Differences in Achievement GO (Nicholls, 1978
  Roberts Treasure, 1995 White Duda), 1994)
• Children tend to be more task oriented
• Children of 10 years could be ego oriented
• Adolescents tend to be more ego oriented
• Boys and men are more ego oriented than girls and
  women In the more competitive levels of sport,
  participants have a higher ego orientation
• Task orientation does not vary with level of
  participation

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Theories and Models 3

• Significant Others and Achievement GO
• (White et al., 98)
• Parents emphasise different aspects of
  participation to their children depending on own
  orientation (team playing/ winning)
• Children with a dominant orientation tend to view
  their parents in the same light
• Both parents and children are poor at judging the
  others actual orientation
• The perceived orientation of the parent will
  influence the childs attitude to participation
• Similarly a coach or teacher can exert influence
  over the childs enjoyment and beliefs about
  sport

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Theories and Models 3

• Is a Task GO favourable? (Fox et al., 1994
  Hardy et al., 1996)
• The literature tends to favour task orientation
• This is limited as a person can have a certain
  degree of both orientations simultaneously
• People with a high ego and task orientation are
  highly motivated in sport
• A win attitude is needed in sport - an ego
  orientation can be used to sustain long-term
  motivation

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Theories and Models 4

• Self-Efficacy Social Cognitive Theory
• (Bandura, 1977)
• Self-efficacy refers to person's judgement of
• capability to perform (efficacy expectations)
• outcome of performance (outcome expectations)
• Bandura suggested 4 sources of information
  influence self-efficacy
• Accomplishments
• Vicarious experience
• Physiological state
• Verbal persuasion
• Maddux (1995) later added
• Emotional states
• Imaginal experiences

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Theories and Models

• Self-efficacy has been shown to influence
• Activity choice
• Level of effort
• Degree of persistence
• Achievement
• Measured along 3 dimensions
• Level (expected attainments)
• Strength (certainty of attainments)
• Generality (number of domains)
• As a psychological construct, self-efficacy plays
  a significant role in many theories of exercise
  behaviour

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Theories and Models

• Social Exchange Theory - Thibaut Kelley (1959)
• Underpins many approaches including
• Cognitive Affective Model (Smith 1986)
• Motivational Model of Sport Withdrawal (Gould,
  1987)
• Integrated Model of Sport Participation and
  Withdrawal (Gould Petlichkoff, 1988)
• Sport Commitment Model (Schmidt Stein, 1991)
• Core constructs
• Outcomes (rewards and costs)
• Comparison Levels (CL)
• Comparison Level of Alternatives (CL Alt)

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Theories and Models

• OTHER PERSPECTIVES
• Model of Sport Confidence
• Vealey (1986)
• Health Belief Model
• Becker et al. (1977)
• Theory of Reasoned Action
• Ajzen Fishbein (1970)
• Theory of Planned Behaviour
• Ajzen Madden (1986)
• Transtheoretical Model of Behavioural Change
• Prochaska Di Clemente (1983)

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Methods and Measures

• Key Participation Constructs
• Psychological
• Perceived competence
• Perceived Self-Competence Scales (Harter)
• Physical Self-perception Profile (Fox Corbin)
• Physical Description Questionnaire (Marsh)
• Self-efficacy
• Goal orientation
• Perception of Sport Questionnaire (Roberts et al)
• Task and Ego Orientation Sports Questionnaire
  (Duda)
• Competitive orientation
• Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Gill)
• Affect / Mood state
• Positive Affect negative Affect Schedule (Watson
  et al)
• Enjoyment

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Methods and Measures

• Key Participation Constructs
• Contextual
• Significant others
• Parents, peers, coaches/teachers, family,
  friends, work colleagues, health professionals
• Health fitness
• Activity choice
• Boys more likely to choose competitive, team
  sports
• Structural barriers
• Personal (psychological)
• External (resources, opportunities, other
  interests)

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Practical Issues and Interventions

• Many intervention programmes do not have strong
  theoretical support
• Transtheoretical Model of Behaviour (Cardinal,
  1997)
• TARGET Strategy (Harwood Biddle, 2002)
• Goal Setting (Locke Latham, 1994)
• SCAMP or SMART
• Worlds of work and sport are miles apart, hence
  goal setting may not always translate

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Practical Issues and Interventions

• Several integrated models have emerged to bring
  together disparate research findings.
• Integrated Model of Sport Participation and
  Withdrawal (Gould and Petlichkoff, 1988)
• Sport Commitment Model (Schmidt and Stein, 1991)
• Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan et al., 1993)
• Integrated Model of Sport Participation (Weiss
  and Chaumeton, 1992)
• Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model (Welk,
  1999)
• Integrated Theory of Intrinsic and Extrinsic
  Motivation in Sport (Vallerand Losier, 1999)
• Cognitive-Behavioural Process Model of
  Participation Motivation (Kremer Busby, 1998
  Lowry, 2002)

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Original Process Model (Kremer and Busby, 1998)

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Revised Model (Lowry Kremer, 2002)

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Case Study

• From an early age it was obvious that Paul was
  likely to excel in sport. At primary school he
  was on an automatic choice on every team, he
  played soccer for a local youth side, and ran in
  the county cross country championships which he
  won easily. His sport came easily to him and he
  enjoyed trying out new activities and meeting
  friends. Both his parents were very supportive.
  His mother had been a county hockey player and
  his father had played rugby and was president of
  the local rugby club. At his secondary school
  Paul was encouraged to play soccer, and scouts
  from several professional clubs came to watch him
  play. One offered him the opportunity of an
  apprenticeship but his parents were keen for him
  to continue his education and go on to university
  if possible. The school principal was an ardent
  soccer fan and coached the First XI himself. His
  father was involved with mini rugby at his club
  and Paul would play rugby in the morning before
  playing soccer in the afternoon. On occasions
  where there was a school soccer game then he had
  to miss mini-rugby which his father accepted but
  he never went to watch him play. His PE teacher
  was a keen athletics coach and Paul would still
  compete although he did not have time for
  specific training. His natural talent and fitness
  ensured that he continued to show great promise.
  At the age of 15 Paul began to find that his
  enthusiasm for his sport was waning. He began to
  miss matches because of injury and on one
  occasion was late for the bus and was left
  behind. His father could not persuade him to go
  to rugby and showed his obvious displeasure. Paul
  began to spend more time playing on his Play
  station.

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Case Study

• With reference to the Theories and Models section
  in the chapter, how would you interpret what is
  happening in this case study?
• With reference to Methods and Measures, what
  techniques would you employ to help understand
  and quantify the issues?
• With reference to Practical Issues and
  Interventions, how would you deal with this
  situation?

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Study Questions

• 1. Compare and contract cognitive evaluation
  theory, perceived competence theory and
  achievement goal theory.
• 2. Review the evidence suggesting that
  self-efficacy can predict participation in
  physical activity.
• 3. Consider the contextual variables that have
  been shown to influence the initiation,
  continuation and discontinuation of sport and
  exercise, with particular reference to the
  measures commonly associated with these
  variables.
• 4. What are some of the limitations of goal
  setting as a psychological intervention?
• 5. Outline and evaluate some of the integrative
  models that have been developed in relation to
  participation in sport and exercise.

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Further Reading

• Duda, J.L. Hall, H. (2001) Achievement goal
  theory in sport Recent extensions and future
  directions, in R.N. Singer, H.A. Hausenblas and
  C. Janelle (eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology
  (pp. 417-443). New York Wiley.
• Harwood, C. and Biddle, S. (2002) The
  Application of Achievement Goal Theory in Youth
  Sport, in I. Cockerill (ed.) Solutions in sport
  psychology (pp. 58-73). London Thomson.
• Marcus, B. and Forsyth, L.H. (2003) Motivating
  People to be Physically Active. Champaign, IL
  Human Kinetics.
• Roberts, G. C. (2001) (ed) Advances in Motivation
  in Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL Human
  Kinetics.
• Vallerand, R.J. and Fortier, M.S. (1998)
  Measures of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
  in Sport and Physical Activity A Review and
  Critique, J.L. Duda (ed.), Advances in Sport and
  Exercise Psychology Measurement (pp. 81-101).
  Morgantown, WV Fitness Information Technology.