Social Psychology of Work

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Social Psychology of Work Dr. Craig
Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health
Psychology Faculty of Health UCE Birmingham
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• Scope
• Organisational behaviour in the workplace
• Group structures
• Group behaviour
• Leadership decision-making
• Organisational climate
• Affects Impacts on
• Job satisfaction Health
• Mental well-being Attendance
• Stress Turnover
• Bullying Productivity
• Ageing
• Change

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• Industrial Nation History
• 18th 19th CENTURY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
• Decline in domestic industry
• Large scale factory units
• Maximum division of labour
• Hierarchical structures
• Poor conditions / limited worker power
• 20th CENTURY 1970s
• Continuous technological change
• Production line working
• Growth of trades unions
• Improved physical conditions

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• Industrial Nation History
• LATTER 20th CENTURY
• Decline of traditional industries
• Growth of information technology
• Growth of service industries
• New patterns and styles of working
• Changing composition of labour force
• Decline in trades unions
• 21st CENTURY
• Free trade
• Producer responsibilities
• Population movements
• International communities
• Supra national groups

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• Changes
• 21st CENTURY
• Free trade
• Producer responsibilities
• Population movements
• International communities
• Supra national groups
• WHAT KIND OF WORK?
• WHAT PATTERN OF WORK?
• WHAT STYLE OF WORKING?
• WHAT KIND OF WORKFORCE?
• WHAT KIND OF NEEDS?

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• What Kind of Work ?
• NON-MANUAL
• KNOWLEDGE-BASED
• SERVICE WORK

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• What Pattern of Work?
• 24 HOUR SOCIETY
• IRREGULAR HOURS
• NEW TECHNOLOGY
• CASUALISATION / SHORT-TERM CONTRACTS
• OUTSOURCING
• HOME WORKING

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• What Kind of WorkForce?
• EDUCATED
• NON-UNIONISED
• HIGH PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN
• MULTI-CULTURAL
• AGEING
• REQUIREMENT FOR JOB SATISFACTION

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• Traditions of Work Psychology
• 1. Relationship between the person and the job
• (Motivation / Satisfaction)
• 2. Interactions between individuals and groups
  within organizations

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1954) GROWTH
NEEDS HOMOSTATIC NEEDS PEOPLE ALWAYS
BEHAVE AS IF SELF- PRESERVATION IS A BASIC GOAL?
Self actualisation (personal growth and
fulfilment)
Esteem (self and others)
Belonging (group membership, affection,
companionship)
Security (safety, stability, continuity)
Bodily needs (food, drink, safety)
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• Alternative Theories of Motivation / Job
  Satisfaction
• Task Characteristic theory
• People motivated by tasks which offer skill
  variety, value and autonomy
• Goal-Setting theory
• People motivated by clear and demanding goals
• Reinforcement theory
• People motivated by rewards and punishments
• Equity theory
• People motivated by social comparisons made with
  others input outcome
• Expectancy theory
• People motivated when there is a match between
  what people value (expect to get) and what their
  job provides

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Systems Approach to Organisation Liu Tanaka
2002 Japanese working men study
Input (goods materials)
Output (finished goods)
Transformation Process (mass production tech.)
Formal system
Social system
Tech. system
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• Interrelated Sub-Systems
• FORMAL SYSTEMS
• Explicitly designed to regulate actions of
  employees
• e.g. hierarchy, working time etc.
• TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS
• Techniques used by employees
• The way the work is done
• SOCIAL SYSTEMS
• The prevailing culture context
• e.g. values, norms, shared attitudes

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• Working Groups
• Important to understand
• Inevitable
• Change individuals' behaviours
• Can have powerful consequences
• Understanding increases chance of desirable
  consequences
• Why do people join groups?
• Security
• Mutual benefit (goal achievement)
• Need for companionship
• Self-esteem
• Mutual interests (sharing)

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• Group Norms
• Indicate expected behaviour
• Concerned with observable behaviour
• Express central values
• Aid survival of group
• Obvious to outsiders statement of intent
• Make group manageable
• Accepted by majority of members

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• Why Shun Group Norms
• Personal goals in conflict with those of group
• No pride in group membership
• Pre-occupation with achieving personal goals
• Not accepted as group member
• age
• gender
• ethnicity
• education

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Communication Structure
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Performance effects methodological
considerations Task monotony cognitive
skills Measures speed accuracy efficiency
Individual aspects motivation perceived
importance age ability health activity
Situation / context supervision morale di
stractions
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12 hour shifts Williamson et al. 1994 8hr vs.
12hr rotating psych health improved Australia com
puter operators reduced tiredness Duchon et
al. 1994 8hr vs. 12hr rotating improved
sleep Canada miners improved
performance Chan Gan 8hr vs. 12hr
rotating no health differences Singapore electron
ic workers some headaches
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Vulnerable groups Over 50s Morning types Long
sleepers Personality types Heavy domestic
commitments Multiple jobs Some physical
conditions Psychiatric problems Employee
Selection Pre-employment counselling
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Management Counselling Education Provide
facilities Manipulate schedules
carefully Increased control of work Reduce any
stress Light quality Drug policy Health
Surveillance
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Standard Shiftwork Index (SSI) Barton et al.
1995 Questionnaires Work Context Shift
System Health Well-being Individual
Differences Normative Data
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Training Education health
effects performance safety quality
of life information
awareness coping methods education lifes
tyle changes info
Survey current work schedule
Analyse data
Identify problem area(s)
Recommend schedule changes
Shiftworker education
Asses review
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Intervention strategies Organisation Slow / fast
rotation (task considerations) Start times Rest
breaks Expert systems Environmental
Modification Bright lights Mood lights Temp.
compensation Workload Facilities Individual
Adjustment Pharmacological help Behavioural sleep
management, diet, exercise, counselling
Evaluate process Evaluate outcome Health
Surveillance Do what? How often?
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Overtime working Extension of normal
workday Extension beyond 8 hours (0800 / 0900
- 1600 / 1700) Non-paid is still
overtime Increasing in UK especially
managerial professional groups 1990 UK had
twice as many more employees on gt48 hrs than any
other EU countries More common in males
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Overtime working Percentage of European
employees working lt16 hrs per week, and gt 48 hrs
per week, 1990 If graph was males
only?
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Employers gt40hrs per week as of labour force,
1996 ILO
Czech Rep. Turkey S. Korea Iceland Swiss Mexico Hu
ngary USE Canada Japan Ireland UK Australia Portug
al Greece Italy Spain Denmark France Germany Norwa
y Sweden Austria Belgium Finland Netherlands
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Potential effects
cardiovascular
mental health
immune system
Stress
gastrointestinal
musculoskeletal
social effects
performance impairment
Fatigue
safety problems
Exposure
over-exposure
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• Cardiovascular disorders and overtime
• Increased Risk
• gt 60hrs
• gt 48hrs
• Night school students
• 50 60 hrs
• Overtime (females only)
• No increased Risk
• gt10 hrs overtime / week

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• Mental Health

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Health Well-being Methodological Issues
Mostly Cross-sectional studies Direction of
any association Lag Healthy worker / Survivor
Effects Response Rates Control
Groups Exposure Assessment Outcome Measures
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Performance Effects Optimal Productivity
Mather 1894 Engineering Weekly hours of 48 -
53 Abbia 1901 Optical Instrument Makers Daily
hours of 8/9 max. Vernon 1918 Munitions
workers Weekly hours of 50 - 60 Accounts for gt
degree of munitions errors in WWI ?
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Performance Effects Accidents General Data
Analyses suggests Rise in accident rates after
9hrs work Cognitive (simulations) studies
suggests errors increase after 8 hrs
work HOWEVER Shift change from 8 to 12
hrs Safety record stays same Attitudes
? Safety culture increased ? Schedule org
? Nature of work ?
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Existing Gaps in Research Irregular
Hours Increased concomitant exposure to other
hazards Reproductive effects Family / Social
influences Behavioural Effects Effect
Modifiers Intervention procedures
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Performance at work Dilemmas Working
Hours Shiftwork Mental Distress Dr. Craig
Jackson Senior Lecturer in Health
Psychology Faculty of Health Community Care
University of Central England
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Regulation of working hours Linear
Assumption King Nimrod
Pieter Bruegel 1563
units
time
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Regulation of working hours Linear Assumption
remained 1800 1900 12 hour days 6 day
weeks Thomas Paine 1737 - 1809 Age of
Reason Rights of Man Annie Besant 1847
1933 Reformist movement Fabian Sciety Secular
Society Fruits of philosophy The
Link White slavery in London 1889
Humanitarian concerns influenced change 48
hour week regular rest increased productivity
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Regulation of working hours 1900
1970 progressive reduction in working
hours traditional work patterns 1970
? working hours increase shiftwork
increases irregular hours increase 24 hour
processing technology unpaid extended
hours flexible working annualised hours
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European directive on working time Organisation
of work Min. daily rest period of 11 consecutive
hours per 24 hours 1 rest break where working
day gt 6 hours Min. uninterrupted rest period of
35 hours per 7 day period Max. of 48 work per
week Min. 4 weeks paid annual leave
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European directive on working time Night
work Mean 8 hours work in any 24 hour
period Free health assessment before assignment
and at regular intervals Transfer to day work
when suffering health problems connected with
night work Night work and shifts Protection
appropriate to the nature of the night
work Prevention and protection services on
parity with day workers Take account of
principles adapting work to the workers
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Derogations Certain jobs junior docs Certain
industries press media utility
provision Circumstances where rests are not
practicable Does not apply to health checks
provision of health and safety
facilities Nearly 900 extra consultants will be
needed by 2010 compensate for a reduction in
doctors hours due to EWTD BMJ 2002325855
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Shiftwork Any work regularly undertaken outside
normal working hours Normal working hours
0700 1800 Nights Early am Evening Fixed Rota
ting Eight hour Twelve hour Effects Circadian
disruption Sleep loss Fatigue Social
disruption
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Circadian Rhythms Body Temp Pulse Urinary
excretion Blood pressure Hormonal
changes Mental Performance Physical
Performance Physiologically determined Socially
modified Externally cued
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Circadian Rhythms
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Adjustment to shiftworking Aprrox. 7 days to
adjust to shift External cues hamper
adjustment Nightworking sometimes never
achieves adjustment Slow rotating
shifts partial adjustment continual
adjustment continual disrhythmia state Rapid
rotating shifts no adjustment
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Adjustment to shiftworking
stress
strain
organisational effects
Phase-shifting of waking and sleeping hours
Impaired performance Impaired health Disturbed
relationships
gt Absenteeism gt Accidents gt Labour turnover lt
Productivity
modifying factors
Individual characteristics Job-related
factors Environment Domestic
Colquhoun Rutenfranz 1980
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Cardiovascular problems associated with shiftwork
Increased Ischemic Heart Disease
(IHD) Knutsson et al. 1986, 1988 Increased risk
of IHD and Myocardial Infarction (MI) Akerstedt
et al. 1986 Increased risk of Coronary V
related disorders Permanent Nightworkers Teiger
1984 Some studies show NO increased risk Bursey
1990 Chan et al. 1987, 1993 Kobayashi et al. 1992
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Cardiovascular problems of shiftwork Liu
Tanaka 2002 Japanese working men study 260
cases 445 controls Working Hours, Sleeping Hours
and Acute MI Working hours related to increased
risk in year prior to AMI increased risk in month
prior to AMI x2 increase in risk for overtime
(gt61 hours) x2-3 increase in risk for lt5 hours
sleep x2-3 increase for lack of sleep (2 or more
days with lt5 hours sleep) lack of sleep few
days off in recent past show gt odds than those in
past Overtime work and lack of sleep may be
related to AMI
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Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork
Indigestion (Chan et al. 1987) (Poole et al.
1992) Reflux Peptic Ulceration (Waterhouse et
al. 1992) Related to irregular
hours circadian dysrhythmia poor catering
facilities inequality in GP access
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• Gastrointestinal disorders and shiftwork
• Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
• 13-52 new referrals to GI (Walker et al. 1990)
• Some occupations have gt G.I than others (Cucino
  Sonnenburg, 2001)
• IBD lt in manual workers and farmers IBD gt in
  sedentary workers
• Assoc. with occupation difficult to prove
• shift workers seen as greatest risk of IBS
• especially nightworkers
• night workers present in GI more than day
  workers
• Access / Availability reasons ?
• genuine aspects ?
• Research fails to answer psychosocial aspects
  of workers ?
• effects of shiftwork lifestyle ?

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Mental health problems and shiftwork Increased
stress Alcohol consumption Neuroticism Re
view by Cole et al. 1990 OM
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Sources of performance impairment Day
sleepers Endogenous factors Exogenous
factors Cortisol gt Daylight Temp. gt Noise
Societal bias Night
wakers Endogenous factors Exogenous
factors Melatonin gt Darkness Temp.
lt Societal bias
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Current evidence Performance impairments more
likely on nightshift vs. morning or
evening on advancing shifts vs. delaying
shifts on rapid rotating shifts vs. slower
rotation on irregular shifts vs. regular
shifts at changeover periods in older
shiftworkers where work is stressful Incon
sistencies 12 hour shifts Sex
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Additional Factors Effecting Performance STABLE
FACTORS SITUATIONAL FACTORS Age Alcohol
(recent use) Education Caffeine (recent
use) Sex Nicotine (recent use) Socio-economic
Medication (recent use) Language Paints,
glues, pesticides (recent) Handedness Near
visual acuity Computer experience Restricted
movement (injury) Caffeine (habitual use) Cold
/ flu Alcohol (habitual use) Stress Nicotine
(habitual use) Arousal / Fatigue Medication
(habitual use) Sleep Paints, glues, pesticides
(habitual use) Screen luminance Diabetes Time
of day Epilepsy Time of year Other CNS / PNS
disease Head injury (out gt1 hr) Alcohol / drug
addiction Physical activity
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Further Reading Cooper, C.L., and Sutherland,
V.J Job Stress, Mental Health and Accidents
among Offshore Workers in Oil and Gas extraction
Industries. Journal of Occupational Medicine
(1987) 29. Gann, M., Corpe, U., and Wilson, I.
(1990) The Application of a Short Anxiety and
Depression Questionnaire to Oil Industry Staff.
Journal of the Society of Occupational Medicine
40 Glazner, L.K. Shift Work and its effects on
fire fighters and nurses. Occupational Health
Safety, July 1992 Hanecke, K., Tiedemann, S.,
Nachreiner, F., and Grzech-Sukalo, H Accident
risk as a function of hour at work and time of
day as determined from accident data and exposure
models for the German working population.
Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and
Health (1998) 24(3).
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Further Reading Harrington, J.M., Shiftwork and
health a critical review of the literature.
London, The Stationary Office, 1978.
Harrington, JM. (2001) Health effects of shift
work and extended hours of work.Occup Environ
Med 58 68-72. Jackson,C.A. (2002) Working
hours and shifts in the petrochemical and gas
industries a review. Croners Occupational
Hygiene 34 13-17. Jackson,C.A., Spurgeon,A. and
DeJong.G Mental Health of expatriate oil workers
on extended twelve hour shifts in a desert-based
oil field. Society of Petroleum Engineers. SPE
61016. Lees, R., and Laundry, B.R. Comparison of
reported workplace morbidity in 8-hour and
12-hour shifts in one plant. Journal of the
Society of Occupational Medicine (1989) 39.
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Further Reading Lodden, T., The Effect on the
Health and Safety of Older Offshore Personnel -
Long Shifts and Working Night Shift. Society of
Petroleum Engineers. SPE 60996. Parkes, K.R.
Sleep patterns, Shift work, and Individual
Differences A Comparison of Onshore and Offshore
Control-Room Operators. Ergonomics (1994) 37(5).
Rosa, R.R Performance, alertness, and sleep
after 3.5 years of 12 hour shifts a follow-up
study. Work and Stress (1991) 5(2). Spurgeon A,
Harrington JM, Cooper CL. (1997) Health and
safety problems associated with long working
hours a review of the current position. Occup
Environ Med 54367-375.