Effective Report Writing

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Effective Report Writing

• Ron Vollmar
• Andrea Gerber

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Presentation Summary

• Overview - to write or not to write
• FRCP 26 requirements
• Planning the report
• Topics to include, report structure
• Reader-oriented style guidelines
• Strunks Elements of Style
• Conciseness exercises

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To write, or not to write

• Counsel often determines
• Cautions drafts, premature conclusions,
  inconsistencies in opinions
• Audience client, counsel, opposing
  counsel/expert/party, judge, jury, mediator,
  arbitrator, potential purchaser or combination

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Purposes of reports

• Required by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 26
  in cases pending in federal court
• Use at trial, mediation or arbitration
• Urge settlement
• Consultation only
• Justify fees

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Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 26

• Requires disclosure of identity of experts (FRCP
  26(a)(2)(A))
• Requires written reports prepared and signed by
  expert witness (FRCP 26(a)(2)(B))
• Enumerates requisite content of report

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FRCP 26(a)(2)(B) - Requisite Content

• Complete statement of all opinions to be
  expressed
• Basis reasons for the opinions
• Data or other information considered in forming
  opinions
• Exhibits used as summary or support
• Qualifications, including all authored articles
• Compensation to be paid
• All trial deposition testimony in last 4 years

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Planning the report

• Keep reports purpose in mind what do you want
  the reader to know (our opinions!)?
• Keep ultimate audience in mind
• Can affect content approach, level of technical
  detail, subject matter, vocabulary, writing
  styles
• Direct/specific
• Emotional/advocate
• Technical/verbose

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Planning the report (continued)

• Communicate from perspective reader is less
  familiar with subject matter than you are
• Be aware of sharp discontinuity in a readers
  understanding of your topic as s/he begins
• Develop an outline listing topics, key points
  data required to support these points
• Facts should enhance key points, not overwhelm
• Be sure data supports logical flow of information

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Planning the report (continued)

• Regarding level of detail, whats left out can be
  as important as whats included
• Dont overwhelm lay readers with unnecessary
  details technical jargon
• Plan use of charts/graphs to depict important,
  voluminous data to communicate results
• Omit data analyses not directly applicable to
  audience purpose unless advantageous to address
  anticipated controverting points

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Topics/Report Structure

• Introduction
• Methodology
• Data
• Analysis
• Summary
• Conclusion(s)

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Topics/Structure Introduction

• This section provides general background of
  purpose of engagement, overview of report content
  its purpose, how report is organized/structured
• Consider writing this section last, especially if
  presenting a summary of the report its findings
  near the beginning of the report

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Topics/Structure BPR Introduction

• As early as possible, explain or provide the
  reader with BPR
• Background
• Purpose
• Roadmap

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Topics/Structure BPR Introduction

• Background describes the motivation for context
  of the report, the enabling events leading to the
  reports needing to be written, key players.

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Topics/Structure BPR Introduction

• Purpose is the objective of the report itself
  (distinct from the purpose of the engagement or
  the underlying issues the report addresses)
• Generally best to be direct The purpose of
  this report is to provide our opinion of the
  amount of XYZ Corp.s lost profits resulting from
  the actions alleged in XYZ Corp.s complaint
  against ABC Limited.

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Topics/Structure BPR Introduction

• Roadmaps describe the reports major topics,
  building a mental model to prepare the reader for
  what is to come provide the reader a
  preliminary point of view that helps create the
  expectations for what is to follow
• This can be accomplished with bullet points
  lays out the report in a manner thats easy to
  grasp for the reader it simplifies your task as
  the writer since it provides the outline for the
  remainder of the report

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Topics/Structure Methodology

• Discuss how the analyses were approached, data
  required utilized, assumptions made or
  constraints encountered
• If certain methodologies that could have been
  used were not, consider explaining why

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Topics/Structure Data

• Discuss data gathered, findings, results of
  analyses
• If information is strictly background or
  supporting, consider omitting from body of report
  but including as an appendix, to retain high
  level of direct readability.
• Identify outside data sources relied on

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Topics/Structure - Analysis

• Describe the actual application of selected
  methodology to actual data
• Note any unexplained or deficient data

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Topics/Structure - Summary

• Effectively a backwards roadmap that tours the
  milestones of the report ties everything
  together
• Its the tell them what you said part of tell
  them what youre going to say, say it, then tell
  them what you said
• Is an optional section
• Summaries are distinct from conclusions

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Topics/Structure - Conclusions

• One or more succinct statements of your
  professional opinion(s) as to the meaning of the
  data your analyses of it
• Include alternatives, options limitations
• Answer an ultimate question for the reader, draw
  out the consequences of what was reported, are a
  call to think or act a specific way as a result
  of having read the report its conclusions

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Reader-oriented style

• Follows four brief guidelines
• Effective in creating understandable writing
• Simpler, clearer, more direct, fewer words
• Better to be understood than look smart!
• Compare the following language accompanying a
  life insurance contract
• First example is without guidelines applied
• Second example is with guidelines applied

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Reader-oriented style not applied

• This contract may, within ten days after receipt
  by the Owner, be returned by delivering it or
  mailing it to the Company or the agent through
  whom it was purchased.  Immediately, upon receipt
  by the Company, this Contract shall be deemed
  void from the beginning.  The Purchase Payments
  allocated to the General Account plus the
  Separate Account Contract Value next computed
  following receipt of this Contract by the
  Company, shall then be returned to the Owner
  within ten days after receipt.

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Reader-oriented style applied

• When you receive your contract, you have ten
  calendar days to accept or reject it.  If you
  decide to reject the contract, mail it to the
  company or deliver it to your agent within ten
  calendar days from the date you received the
  contract.
• After receiving your rejected contract, the
  company will void it and return your initial
  payment within ten calendar days.

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Reader-oriented style Guideline 1

• Use the real subject or actor as the
  grammatical subject of the sentence.
• Examples
• Not It is imperative that we provide support for
  our delegates.
• But We must support our delegates.
• Not Our expectation was to begin the new
  semester immediately.
• But We expected to begin the new semester
  immediately.

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Reader-oriented style Guideline 2

• Put the action in verbs, not nouns.
• Examples
• Not The police were conducting an investigation
  of the robbery that occurred this morning.
• But The police are investigating the robbery
  that occurred this morning.
• Not Her discovery of the missing coins happened
  on Friday while she was cleaning the antique
  vase.
• But She discovered the missing coins on Friday
  while cleaning the antique vase.

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Reader-oriented style Guideline 3

• Use active voice constructions.
• Examples
• Not The proper procedures for presenting a
  guests check must be learned by the new staff.
• But The new staff must learn the proper
  procedures for presenting a guests check.
• Not Employee purchases must be paid for within
  ninety days or in six payroll deductions in all
  cases.
• But All employees must pay for their purchases
  within ninety days or in six payroll deductions.

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Reader-oriented style Guideline 4

• Use reader-oriented words that are specific and
  gender-neutral.
• Examples
• Not A computer in the lab is not working
  correctly.
• But The monitor on computer 55 in the lab is
  blinking on and off when students use the
  graphics software package.
• Not Each student should bring his book to class.
• But All students should bring their books to
  class.

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Elements of Style William Strunk, Jr.

• Classic writers reference book published in 1918
• Short, easy to understand collection of the
  principal requirements of plain English writing
• Concentrates on rules of usage principles of
  composition that are most frequently violated
• www.bartleby.com/141 has free edition!

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Elements of Style (continued)

• Internet version has 6 sections Introductory,
  Elementary Rules of Usage (grammar punctuation
  - rules 1-8), Elementary Principles of
  Composition, A Few Matters of Form, Words
  Expressions Commonly Misused Words Commonly
  Misspelled
• Highly recommended as technical resource
• Final discussion will be on Strunks 10
  Elementary Principles of Composition

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Principles of Composition Rule 9

• Make the paragraph the unit of composition one
  paragraph to each topic
• Excerpt Ordinarily, a subject requires
  subdivision into topics, each of which should be
  made the subject of a paragraph. The object of
  treating each topic in a paragraph by itself is,
  of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of
  each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step
  in the development of the subject has been
  reached

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Principles of Composition Rule 10

• As a rule, begin each paragraph with a topic
  sentence end it in conformity with the beginning
• Excerpts Ending with a digression, or with an
  unimportant detail, is particularly to be
  avoided.
• If the paragraph forms part of a larger
  composition, its relation to what precedes, or
  its function as a part of the whole, may need to
  be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a
  mere word or phrase (again therefore for the
  same reason) in the topic sentence.

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Principles of Composition Rule 10 (contd
begin paragraph with topic sentence, end in
conformity)

• Excerpt The practice here recommended enables
  him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as
  he begins to read it, and to retain the purpose
  in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most
  generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly
  in exposition and argument, is that in which
• the topic sentence comes at or near the
  beginning
• the succeeding sentences explain or establish or
  develop the statement made in the topic sentence
  and
• the final sentence either emphasizes the thought
  of the topic sentence or states some important
  consequence.

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Principles of Composition Rule 11

• Use the active voice
• Excerpt The habitual use of the active voice,
  however, makes for forcible writing. This is true
  not only in narrative principally concerned with
  action, but in writing of any kind. Many a tame
  sentence of description or exposition can be made
  lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive
  in the active voice for some such perfunctory
  expression as there is, or could be heard.

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Principles of Composition Rule 11 (contd
use the active voice)

• Examples
• Not There were a great number of dead leaves
  lying on the ground.
• But Dead leaves covered the ground.
• Not Gold was not allowed to be exported.
• But The export of gold was prohibited.
• Not A survey of this region was made in 1900.
• But This region was surveyed in 1900.
• Not Confirmation of these reports cannot be
  obtained.
• But These reports cannot be confirmed.

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Principles of Composition Rule 12

• Put statements in positive form
• Excerpt Make definite assertions. Avoid tame,
  colorless, hesitating, non-committal language.
  Use the word not as a means of denial or in
  antithesis, never as a means of evasion.

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Principles of Composition Rule 12 (contd
put statements in positive form)

• Examples
• Not He was not very often on time.
• But He usually came late.
• dishonest for not honest, trifling for not
  important
• forgot for did not remember, ignored for did not
  pay attention to
• distrusted for did not have much confidence in

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Principles of Composition Rule 13

• Omit needless words
• Excerpt Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence
  should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph
  no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason
  that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines
  and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires
  not that the writer make all his sentences short,
  or that he avoid all detail and treat his
  subjects only in outline, but that every word
  tell.

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Principles of Composition Rule 13 (contd
omit needless words)

• Examples
• Not There is no doubt but that
• But No doubt (or Doubtless)
• he for he is a man who, hastily for in a hasty
  manner
• this subject for this is a subject which, whether
  (or the question whether) for the question as to
  whether

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Principles of Composition Rule 13 (contd
omit needless words)

• Excerpts The expression the fact that should be
  revised out of every sentence in which it occurs.
  
• As a positive statement is more concise than
  negative, and the active voice more concise than
  the passive, many of the examples given under
  Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule as well.
• A common violation of conciseness is the
  presentation of a single complex idea, step by
  step, in a series of sentences which might to
  advantage be combined into one.

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Principles of Composition Rule 13 (contd
omit needless words)

• Examples
• Not Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to
  wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told
  him that this wish of his would come true. The
  king of Scotland at this time was Duncan.
  Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan.
  He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king.
  (55 words.)
• But Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his
  ambition and realized the prediction of the
  witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of
  Scotland in his place. (26 words.)

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Principles of Composition Rule 13 (contd
omit needless words more examples)

• since for owing to the fact that
• though (or although) for in spite of the fact
  that
• his failure for the fact that he had not
  succeeded
• my arrival for the fact that I had arrived

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Principles of Composition Rule 14

• Avoid a succession of loose sentences
• Excerpt This rule refers especially to loose
  sentences of a particular type, those consisting
  of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced
  by a conjunction or relative. Although single
  sentences of this type may be unexceptionable
  (see under Rule 4), a series soon becomes
  monotonous and tedious. An unskillful writer will
  sometimes construct a whole paragraph of
  sentences of this kind, using as connectives and,
  but, and less frequently, who, which, when,
  where, and while, these last in non-restrictive
  senses (see under Rule 3).

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Principles of Composition Rule 15

• Express co-ordinate ideas in similar form
• Excerpt This principle, that of parallel
  construction, requires that expressions of
  similar content and function should be outwardly
  similar. The likeness of form enables the reader
  to recognize more readily the likeness of content
  and function. By this principle, an article or a
  preposition applying to all the members of a
  series must either be used only before the first
  term or else be repeated before each term.
  Correlative expressions (both, and not, but not
  only, but also either, or first, second, third
  and the like) should be followed by the same
  grammatical construction. Many violations of this
  rule can be corrected by rearranging the
  sentence.

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Principles of Composition Rule 15 (contd
express coordinate ideas together in similar form)

• Examples
• Not In spring, summer or in winter
• But In spring, summer or winter (or In spring,
  in summer or in winter)
• Not It was both a long ceremony and very
  tedious.
• But The ceremony was both long and tedious.
• Not A time not for words, but action.
• But A time not for words, but for action.

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Principles of Composition Rule 16

• Keep related words together
• Excerpt The position of the words in a sentence
  is the principal means of showing their
  relationship. The subject of a sentence and the
  principal verb should not, as a rule, be
  separated by a phrase or clause that can be
  transferred to the beginning. Modifiers should
  come, if possible next to the word they modify.
  If several expressions modify the same word, they
  should be so arranged that no wrong relation is
  suggested.

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Principles of Composition Rule 16 (contd
keep related words together)

• Examples
• Not Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The
  Excursion, gives a minute description of this
  church.
• But In the fifth book of The Excursion,
  Wordsworth gives a minute description of this
  church.
• Not All the members were not present.
• But Not all the members were present.
• Not He only found two mistakes.
• But He found only two mistakes.

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Principles of Composition Rule 17

• In summaries, keep to one tense
• Excerpt Shifting from one tense to the other
  gives the appearance of uncertainty and
  irresolution (compare Rule 15). In presenting
  the statements or the thought of someone else, as
  in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech,
  the writer should avoid intercalating such
  expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the
  speaker added," "the speaker then went on to
  say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He
  should indicate clearly at the outset, once for
  all, that what follows is summary, and then waste
  no words in repeating the notification.

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Principles of Composition Rule 18

• Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end
• Excerpt The proper place for the word, or group
  of words, which the writer desires to make most
  prominent is usually the end of the sentence.
  The principle that the proper place for what is
  to be made most prominent is the end applies
  equally to the words of a sentence, to the
  sentences of a paragraph, and to the paragraphs
  of a composition.

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Principles of Composition - Rule 18 (contd
place emphatic words of sentence at end)

• Examples
• Not Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude
  since that time, though it has advanced in many
  other ways.
• But Humanity, since that time, has advanced in
  many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in
  fortitude.
• Not This steel is principally used for making
  razors, because of its hardness.
• But Because of its hardness, this steel is
  principally used in making razors.

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Closing comments

• First lets do the conciseness exercises
• When all else failsWRITE! Just do it!
• Writing revising are different stages
• Credit where its due
• www.techprose.com/tips_11.html
• Technical Writing for Fun Profit by David E.
  Goldberg (1999)