2. ????????????????????????? (Aeronautical Symbols)

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2. ????????????????????????? (Aeronautical
Symbols)

• Aerodrome Information
• Characteristics
• Traffic Control Boundaries
• Instrument Landing Aids
• Radio Facilities Beacons, Control Tower
  Frequencies, VOR, ILS
• Aeronautical Lights
• White Green Civil Airfield
• 2 White Green Mil Airfield
• White Yellow Water airfield
• White red significant land mark
• Miscellaneous Caution, Danger area, Isogonics
  Lines

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Scale

• Scale Chart Length / Earth Length
• Small Scale Large Area Less Detail
• 1600,000 or smaller
• Middle Scale
• Bigger than 1600,000 but smaller than 175,000
• Large Scale Small Area More Detail
• 175,000 and bigger
• Distance measure between parallel of latitude
  by measuring meridian
• 1 minute 1 NM.

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Plotting and Measuring

• Basic operations in Dead Reckoning.
• Plotting is the location of points or courses on
  chart by their coordinates of latitude and
  longitude.
• Measuring is the determination of distance and
  direction between points on a chart.
• Tools pencil, eraser, dividers, and plotter

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Plotter

• A device for drawing and measuring courses and
  distances
• Weems Aircraft Plotter Mark II, MK IIN
• The principal use of a plotter is the measurement
  of true course, which is line on a chart
  representing the path over which the aircraft to
  travel.
• Its direction is determined by the angle it make
  with the meridians, which run north and south

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Plotter

• Straight edge aligned with True Course (TC)
• Center hole over meridian or parallel
• Scale indicated by arrow
• Read direction on scale over meridian or parallel
  
• A course between 0º and 180º is measured along
  the outer scale
• A course between 180º and 360º is measured along
  the inner scale
• It is wise to estimate the direction roughly
  prior to exact measurement as a commonsense
  check

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Plotting and Measuring on a Lambert Chart

• The graticule of a Lambert chart, is
  characterized by converging meridians.
• The error will be at a maximum for east-west
  courses and at a minimum for north south
  courses
• For distance of 200-300 miles, it is advantageous
  to make one course measurement for entire route
  at mid-longitude
• For longer runs it is wiser to break the course
  into segments, changing to new course with each
  new segment encountered

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Plotting and Measuring on a Lambert Chart

• On Lambert charts the plotters may be convenient
  than dividers as a means of measuring distance.
• Since the Lambert charts was seen to be
  uniformity of scale over rather large areas
• Hence, dividers spanned to 100 miles on one
  Lambert would measure 100 miles on any part of
  any Lambert of the same scale

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Plotting and Measuring on a Mercator Chart

• On a Mercator, meridians are parallel lines. Any
  straight line cutting them will be a transversal,
  cutting across each at the same angle.
• Direction from true north may be measured
  accurately at any meridian and not only at
  mid-longitude as on a Lambert.
• Scale of distance on a Mercator is constantly
  changing. The scale along any Mercator course is
  relatively contracted on the portion nearest the
  equator, and expanded toward the pole.
• The true Mercator distance of the entire course
  can be measured only against a scale chosen along
  a portion of course where an average scale exists.

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Chapter 4
Pilotage and DR
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Words for Air Navigation

• Track (TR) is the actual horizontal direction
  made by the aircraft over the earth (due to wind)
  or actual path
• Course (C) is the intend horizontal direction or
  travel. There are TC, MC, CC (Compass Course)
  Track Made Good
• True Course (TC) The intended or actual path
  over the ground measured from true north
• Heading (HDG) is the horizontal direction in
  which the A/C is pointed. There are TH, MH, CH
• True Heading (TH) the direction from true north
  in which the aircraft is pointed
• Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed
  point on the earth. Knots, MPH, km/hr
• True Airspeed (TAS) Speed of an aircraft through
  a mass of air

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Wind and Wind Effect

• Wind has direct and speed
• Wind direction from
• The lateral displacement effected by wind is
  drift,
• The angle between intended and actual track is
  drift angle
• The number of degrees that an aircraft is turn
  into wind in order to fly a desired path over the
  ground is called the drift-correction angle
• The drift-correction angle is the same as drift
  angle but opposite direction
• In making a drift correction, the pilot has not
  prevented drift but corrected for it.

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Vectors and the Wind Triangle

• In Dead Reckoning there are six basic measures
  with concerned
• True Air Speed (TAS) Speed of an aircraft
  through a mass of air
• True Heading (TH) The direction from true north
  in which the aircraft is pointed
• 4. Wind Direction / Velocity (W/V)
• 5. Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed
  point on the earth.
• 6. True Course (TC) The intended or actual path
  over the ground measured from true north

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• The six measures listed always pair together as
  the following vectors
• Wind Direction Wind Speed
• True Heading True Air Speed
• True Course Ground Speed

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Wind Determination

• Forecast Winds
• Winds are measured and predicted by weather
  experts (Balloons and analysis of pressure
  system)
• Winds at flying altitudes for use in planning a
  flight
• Winds change with altitude and with the nature of
  the terrain over which they pass
• Direct Observation at altitude of a few
  throusand feet , wind direction can sometimes be
  checked by watching smoke plumes over water, by
  the washback of foam from whitecaps. The number
  of whitecaps is also an indication of wind speed.
• Winds change in both speed and direction with
  altitude
• The passage of cloud shadows across the ground is
  usable at times as a check on wind direction
• In fast, high flying aircraft none of these
  devices is value

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Wind Determination

• Winds Between Two Positions it is average wind
  between two position
• The average True Heading (TH) and True Airspeed
  (TAS) derived from the aircrafts instruments,
• The Ground Speed (GS) and Drift Angle, are
  entered on the wind face of the computer and
  unknown wind vector is solved
• Drift Angle is the difference between Track (TR)
  and TH if TH is greater, drift is left, if TR
  is greater, drift is right

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Wind Triangle

• Air Vector (Air Plot)
• TH direction of the vector
• TAS magnitude of the vector
• Wind Vector (W/V)
• Wind Direction
• Speed
• The tail of wind vector always connected to the
  head of the air vector.
• Cross Vector or Ground Vector
• GS Ground Speed
• TR Track

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Air Vector
Track-Ground Speed
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• Drift Angle is the difference between Track (TR)
  and TH if TH is greater, drift is left, if TR
  is greater, drift is right

TH 360º
TH 360º
TR 005º
TR 350º
Drift Angle 5ºL
Drift Angle 5ºR
TR is greater, drift is right
TH is greater, drift is left
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TN
TH045º
Wind from 330
TR / GS
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• Any distance between the ground position and air
  position must represent wind effect
• An arrow drawn from air position to ground
  position will be a wind vector

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Dead Reckoning Computer

• Dalton E-6B/MB-4

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Line Of Position (LOP)

• LOP is a line connecting all possible geographic
  positions of an aircraft at a given instant
• The line can be straight or curved, depending on
  the source of information
• A true bearing from a mountain peak will be a
  Straight line Of Position
• Distance from an object will be a circle of
  radius equal to the distance
• Lines of position determined by loran are
  hyperbolas

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Fix

• A fix is an established geographic position of an
  aircraft for a given instant time. It is a point,
  not a line.
• A fix can be found only by crossing two or more
  LOPs independently determined
• Any two LOPs intersecting at an angle greater
  than 30º will normally provide reliable fixing,
  the best results are obtained when they cross at
  right angles

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Altitude

• Indicated Altitude is read directly from
  altimeter when it is directly adjusted to the
  local altimeter setting
• Pressure Altitude is displayed on altimeter when
  it is set to the standard sea level atmospheric
  pressure of 29.92 in.Hg
• At or above transition altitude
• Called Flight Level
• Density Altitude is pressure altitude corrected
  for nonstandard temperature used to determine
  aircraft performance
• True Altitude is the actual height of an object
  above mean sea level
• True altitude and Pressure Altitude are equal
  only when standard atmospheric condition exist
• Absolute Altitude is the actual height of the
  airplane above the earths surface
• Height above ground level (AGL)
• Height Above Airport (HAA)
• Height Above Touch Down Zone (HAT)
• Threshold Crossing Height (TCH)

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Altitude

• 1 inch Hg 1,000 ft
• 1 mb 30 ft
• When flying from high to low (Press), or hot to
  cold , look out below.

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Navigation Technique
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• ??????????? ???????????????????????

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??????????????????

• Heading /- 2
• Speed /- 5 ??? TAS
• Altitude /- 200 feet

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???????????????????

• ???????????????
• ???????????????????????
• ?????????
• ?????????????????? ??? Flight plan
• ??????????????
• ?????????????
• ???????? Flight log

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???????????????

• ???????????????? ?????????????????????????
• ???????????????? ?????????????????????????
• ????????????? ???? 1 600,000 ???????????????????
  ???????????????????
• ????????????? ???? 1 75,000 ????????????????????
  ??????????????????????????
• ?????????????????????????????
  ??????????????????????????????????????
  ???????????????????????????????????????????

1 250,000
1 1,000,000
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??? Track ?????? Reporting Points
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2. ?????????? ????????? Track ?????????? ??? ??
Variation ?????????????????

• Variation

???????????????????? True North ??? Magnetic North
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3. ????????? Prohibited, Restricted ??? Danger
Areas ????????????????????
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4.??????? Safety Height ??????????????????????????
?????? ???????????????????????????? IMC

• It is suggested that you cross mountain passes at
  an altitude at least 1,000 feet above the pass
  elevation.
• The cloud clearance requirement is at least 1,000
  feet below the clouds.
• You should make sure that you have at least a
  2,000 foot ceiling over the highest pass you will
  cross

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?????????????????

• TURNING POINT
• INFORMATION BLOCK

350
Magnetic Heading
045
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height (RED)
3500
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Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
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• POSITION REPORTING POINTS

TAKHLI
ATA
ETA
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• DISTANCE MARKER
• 10 NM interval (Normally on the right side)

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30
20
10
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• CHECK POINTS
• ???????????????????????????????????????
• ??????????????????????????????????????????????????
  ?? Track ???????????????????? ??????????????????

CHECK POINT
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ATA
ETA
Magnetic Heading
15
Check Point
ATA
Estimate Time Interval
ETA
Safety Height
10
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Magnetic Heading
5
Actual Fuel Remaining
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
ATA
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
ETA
10
5
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Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
10
5