Chapter 8 Cognition, Intelligence, and Creativity

1
Chapter 8Cognition, Intelligence, and Creativity
2
The Nature of Thought

• Thinking internal ________ of external
  __________.
• Cognition Mentally processing information
  (images, concepts, etc.) thinking
• Images picture-like mental representations
• Concept Generalized idea representing a class of
  related objects or events
• Language Words or symbols, and rules for
  combining them, that are used for thinking and
  communication

3
Types of Mental Images

• Stored Image Mental image kept in long-term
  memory (LTM) and retrieved when appropriate
• Created Image Image that has been assembled or
  invented rather than remembered
• 3-D, rotated in space, size may change.
• Kinesthetic Image Created from produced,
  remembered, or imagined muscular sensations

4
Figure 8.1
FIGURE 8.1 Imagery in thinking. (Top) Subjects
were shown a drawing similar to (a) and drawings
of how (a) would look in other positions, such as
(b) and (c). Subjects could recognize (a) after
it had been rotated from its original position.
However, the more (a) was rotated in space, the
longer it took to recognize it. This result
suggests that people actually formed a
three-dimensional image of (a) and rotated the
image to see if it matched. (Shepard, 1975.)
(Bottom) Try your ability to manipulate mental
images Picture each of these shapes as a piece
of paper that can be folded to make a cube. After
they have been folded, on which cubes do the
arrow tips meet?
5
Concept Formation

• Process of classifying world into meaningful
  categories
• Positive Instance Object or event that belongs
  to the concept class
• Negative Instance Object or event that does not
  belong to the concept class
• Conceptual Rule Guidelines for deciding whether
  objects or events belong to concept class
• Prototypes/ Ideal Models

6
Figure 8.3
FIGURE 8.3 When does a cup become a bowl or a
vase? Deciding if an object belongs to a
conceptual class is aided by relating it to a
prototype, or ideal example. Subjects in one
experiment chose number 5 as the best cup.
7
Concept Formation (cont'd)

• Conjunctive Concept Class of objects that are
  defined by the presence of two or more common
  features (e.g., object is pink and soft)
• Relational Concept Based on how an object
  relates to something else or how its features
  relate to one another
• Disjunctive Concept Objects that have at least
  one of several possible features either-or
  concept (strike in baseball)

8
More Concept Issues and Terms

• Denotative Meaning Exact definition of a word or
  concept
• Connotative Meaning Emotional or personal
  meaning of a concept

9
Figure 8.4
FIGURE 8.4 Use of prototypes in concept
identification. Even though its shape is unusual,
item (a) can be related to a model (an ordinary
set of pliers) and thus recognized. But what are
items (b) and (c)? If you dont recognize them,
look ahead to figure 8.6.
10
Figure 8.6
FIGURE 8.6 Context can substitute for a lack of
appropriate prototypes in concept identification.
11
Language

• What is the role of language in thinking?
• A Allows events to be _______________ into
  ___________ for _________________ manipulation.
• Encoding Translating information into symbols
  that are easy to manipulate and understand
• Semantics Study of meanings in language
• Phoneme Basic speech sounds
• Morpheme Speech sounds collected into meaningful
  units, like syllables or words

12
Figure 8.8
FIGURE 8.6 Context can substitute for a lack of
appropriate prototypes in concept identification.
13
Language (cont'd)

• Grammar Set of rules for making sounds into
  words or words into sentences
• Syntax Rules for word order in sentences
• Productivity Ability of language to generate new
  thoughts or ideas
• American Sign Language (ASL) Language used by
  deaf and hearing-impaired people

14
Problem Solving

• Mechanical Solution Achieved by trial and error
  or by rote
• Understanding
• Algorithm Learned set of rules that always leads
  to the correct solution
• General Solution States the requirements for
  success but not in enough detail for further
  action
• Random Search Strategy All possibilities are
  tried, more or less randomly
• Functional Solution
• Heuristic Strategy for identifying and
  evaluating problem solutions

15
Insight

• When an answer appears suddenly in problem
  solving (a-ha learning)
• Involves three abilities
• Selective Encoding Selecting information that is
  relevant to a problem while ignoring distractions
• Selective Combination Connecting seemingly
  unrelated bits of useful information
• Selective Comparison Comparing new problems with
  old information or with problems already solved

16
Problem solving can also be blocked Fixations

• Fixations Tendency to repeat wrong solutions and
  to fixate on them, or to become blind to
  alternatives
• Functional Fixedness Inability to see new uses
  (functions) for familiar objects or for things
  that were used in a particular way

17
Barriers to Problem Solving

• Emotional Barriers Inhibition and fear of making
  a fool of oneself or of making a mistake
• Cultural Barriers Belief that fantasy is a waste
  and feelings and humor have no place in problem
  solving
• Learned Barriers Taboos staying with
  conventional uses
• Perceptual Barriers Habits leading to a failure
  to identify important elements of a problem

18
Artificial Intelligence (AI)

• Computers (and their programs) that perform
  human-like problem solving or intelligent
  responding (Deep Blue, the chess-playing
  supercomputer)
• Computer Simulations Programs that attempt to
  duplicate human behavior, especially thinking,
  problem solving, or decision making
• Expert Systems Computer programs that respond as
  an expert human would
• Responding like a chess Grand Master
• Organized Knowledge Systematic information
• Acquired Strategies Learned tactics

19
Defining Intelligence

• Global capacity to act purposefully, think
  rationally, and deal effectively with the
  environment
• Operational Definition Specifies what procedures
  we will use to measure a concept

20
Some Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Terms

• Norm Average score for a designated group of
  people
• Chronological Age Persons age in years
• Mental Age Average intellectual performance

21
More Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Terms

• Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Intelligence index
  original definition mental age divided by
  chronological age, then multiplied by 100
• Deviation IQ Scores based on a persons standing
  in his or her age group how far above or below
  average a persons score is, relative to other
  scores
• Average IQ in the U.S. 100

22
Wechsler Tests

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test, 3rd Edition
  (WAIS-III) Adult intelligence test that rates
  verbal and performance intelligence and abilities
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th
  Edition (WISC-IV) Downscaled version of the
  WAIS-III for children from 6 years to 16 years,
  11 months, 30 days
• Performance Intelligence Nonverbal intelligence
• Verbal Intelligence Language or symbol-oriented
  intelligence
• Normal (Bell-shaped) Curve Most scores fall
  close to the average, and very few are found at
  the extremes

23
IQ Research Results, and a Few More Terms to Know

• A strong correlation (about .50) exists between
  IQ and school grades, but not a measure of
  ___________.
• IQ is NOT a good predictor of success in art,
  music, writing, dramatics, science and
  leadership.
• Men and women do NOT appear to differ in overall
  intelligence.
• Giftedness/ Genius Having a high IQ (usually
  above 130) or special talents or abilities
  (playing Mozart at age 5).
• Giftedness/ Mental Retardation Having a low IQ

24
Mental Retardation Some Definitions

• Presence of a developmental disability or an IQ
  score below 70 a significant impairment of
  adaptive behavior also figures into the
  definition
• Adaptive Behavior Basic skills such as dressing,
  eating, working, hygiene necessary for self-care
• Familial Retardation Mild retardation that
  occurs in homes that have inadequate nutrition,
  intellectual stimulation, medical care, and
  emotional support

25
Organic Causes of Mental Retardation

• Related to physical disorders
• Birth Injuries Lack of oxygen to the brain, for
  example
• Fetal Damage Congenital problem prenatal damage
  from disease, infection, or drug abuse by the
  mother
• Metabolic Disorders Disorder in metabolism
  affects energy use and production in the body
• Genetic Abnormalities Abnormality in the genes,
  such as missing genes, extra genes, or defective
  genes

26
Gardners Theory of Eight Multiple Intelligences

• Language Used for thinking by lawyers, writers,
  comedians
• Logic and Math Used by scientists, accountants,
  programmers
• Visual and Spatial Thinking Used by engineers,
  inventors, aviators
• Music Used by composers, musicians, music critics

27
Gardners Theory of Eight Multiple Intelligences
(cont'd)

• Bodily-Kinesthetic Skills Used by dancers,
  athletes, surgeons
• Intrapersonal Skills (Self-Knowledge) Used by
  poets, actors, ministers
• Interpersonal Skills (Social Abilities) Used by
  psychologists, teachers, politicians
• Naturalistic Skills (Ability to Understand
  Natural Environment) Used by biologists, organic
  farmers

28
Creative Thinking

• Inductive Thought Going from specific facts or
  observations to general principles
• Deductive Thought Going from general principles
  to specific situations

29
How to Rate Creative Thoughts

• Fluency Total number of suggestions you can make
• Flexibility Number of times you shift from one
  class of possible uses to another
• Originality How novel or unusual or unique your
  suggestions are
• Convergent Thinking Many thoughts or variations
  converging on a single answer conventional
  thinking
• Divergent Thinking Many possibilities developing
  from one starting point

30
Stages of Creative Thought

• Orientation Defining the problem
• Preparation Gaining as much information as
  possible
• Incubation The problem, while not appearing to
  be actively worked on, is still cooking in the
  background
• Illumination The a-ha experience rapid
  insight into the solution
• Verification Testing and critically evaluating
  the solution

31
Logic and Intuition

• Intuition Quick, impulsive thought that does not
  make use of formal reasoning
• Representativeness Heuristic Giving a choice
  greater weight if it seems to be representative
  of what is already known
• Base Rate Underlying probability of an event
• Framing The way a problem is stated or the way
  it is structured

32
How to Enhance Creativity

• Break mental sets and challenge assumptions.
• Mental Set Tendency to perceive or respond in a
  certain way that blinds us to possible solutions.
• Define problems broadly.
• Restate the problem in different ways.
• Allow time for incubation.

33
How to Enhance Creativity (cont'd)

• Seek varied input.
• Look for analogies.
• Take sensible risks.
• Delay evaluation
• Brainstorm