ETHICS

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ETHICS

• Philosophy 120
• Also known as
• Religious Studies 120
• Professor Marcella Norling

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• We are discussing no small matter, but how we
  ought live.
• Socrates, in Platos Republic

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The Oxford English Dictionary definition of
PHILOSOPHY

• Use of reason and argument in seeking truth and
  knowledge of reality, especially knowledge of the
  causes and nature of things and of the principles
  governing existence
• Particular system or set of beliefs reached by
  this

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Branches of Philosophy

• Epistemology What is knowledge?
• Ontology What is the nature of existence?
• Aesthetics What is beauty?
• Ethics What should I do?

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Ethics, or moral philosophy, ask basic questions
about the good life, about what is better and
worse, about whether there is any objective right
and wrong, and about how we know it if there is.
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An ethical theory is

• A systematic exposition of a particular view
  about what is the nature and basis of good or
  right

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• An ethical theory provides reasons or norms
  for judging acts to be right or wrong and
  attempts to give a justification

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DESCRIPTIVE Factual, describes what
ISNORMATIVE Evaluative, describes what SHOULD
BE
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WHAT SHOULD I DO?
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EGOISM

• You should act in your own best interest

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UTILITARIANISM

• You should act to create the greatest good for
  the greatest number

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KANTIANISM

• You should do your moral duty by following the
  Categorical Imperative
• Form 1) Do only that which you would will to be a
  universal law
• Form 2) Treat all people as ends, never as merely
  means

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VIRTUE ETHICS

• You should be a good (virtuous) person

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NATURAL LAW ETHICS

• You should act in accordance with your human
  nature and with the natural laws of the universe

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FEMINIST ETHICS

• Recognize and care for all people as equally
  human, and attend ethically to the full range of
  human experience however shaped by gender.

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If NO objective truth exists

• Relativism Do what your society says is right
• Subjectivism Do what you think is right
• Emotivism Do what you feel is right
• Nihilism Do whatever. Or not. Doesnt matter.

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DIVINE COMMAND

• Do what your religion says is right

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What is ethical relativism?

• The view that ethical values and beliefs are
  relative to the various individuals or societies
  that hold them.
• The view that NO objective right or wrong exists.

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Two forms of ethical relativism

• Cultural ethical relativism
• Individual ethical relativism

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Arguments FOR and AGAINST ethical relativism

• Moral Diversity
• Moral Uncertainty
• Situational Differences

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Moral Diversity

• FOR ER
• There is no agreement on basic moral principles

• AGAINST ER
• Disagreement does not prove there is no truth.
• Some apparent disagreements are factual, not moral

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Moral Uncertainty

• FOR ER
• We just dont know for sure what is right, or if
  anything is right or wrong

• AGAINST ER
• Maybe we just dont know YET
• We may be unsure if we can know, but not knowing
  does not prove we cant know
• We act as if we believe some things are better
  than other things

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Situational Differences

• FOR ER
• Times and places are so different, one moral code
  could not possibly be right for all

• AGAINST ER
• There may be same underlying values, just
  expressed differently
• Objective truth may exist without being absolute

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Objective is not the same as absolute

• OBJECTIVISM says truth exists,objectively
• Something may be right, good, true, but
  exceptions may exist in various contexts

• ABSOLUTISM
• Says rules or principles have NO EXCEPTIONS
• Context and the particular are not considered

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Some attempts to come up with a universal
morality

• Four Directives of the Parliament of the World
  Religions
• United Religions Initiative
• United Nations Universal Declaration on Human
  Rights
• Nuremberg Code
• Geneva Conventions

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Declaration of the Parliament of the Worlds
Religions (1993)Four Irrevocable Directives

• 1. Commitment to a culture of non-violence and
  respect for life
• 2. Commitment to a culture of solidarity and a
  just economic order
• 3. Commitment to a culture of tolerance and a
  life of truthfulness
• 4. Commitment to a culture of equal rights and
  partnership between men and women.

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Psychological Egoism

• The view that we all act in our own interest all
  the time
• Descriptive It is a claim about how people ARE
• NOT an ethical theory, just a possible foundation
  for a theory

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Psychological Egoism

• Is TRUE because
• We do what we want so our actions are selfish
• Even unselfish actions bring us pleasure
• People do what they can get away with

• Is NOT True because
• We sometimes act out of a sense of obligation
• Our own pleasure may be a by-product of unselfish
  actions, not a motivation

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ETHICAL EGOISM

• An ethical theory which claims that we all SHOULD
  act in our own interest
• NORMATIVE, makes a claim about how humans SHOULD
  act

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Arguments for Ethical Egoism

• Psychological egoism is true we all are selfish,
  therefore we all should act selfishly
• Since everyone else will be selfish you should be
  too or you will lose out
• Everyone will be better off if we each look after
  our own interests

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Arguments against Ethical Egoism

• Psychological egoism is untrue
• If PE is true, it is superfluous (unnecessary) to
  tell us to act selfishly if we all do anyway
• Cannot get Ought from Is (if something IS a
  certain way, does not prove it SHOULD be that
  way)

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Arguments against Ethical Egoism (cont.)

• We seem inhuman if we truly do not care about
  others we ought not hurt them even in self
  interest
• It is inconsistent and contradictory for me to
  will you to act in your interest when it may not
  be in my interest that you do so

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Famous Egoist Thomas Hobbes

• Published Leviathan in 1651
• Without strong central government, Hobbes says we
  will be in a war of all against all
• Life in time of war is solitary, poor, nasty,
  brutish and short

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Famous Egoist Adam Smith

• Published Wealth of Nations in 1776
• Intellectual foundation of capitalism
• Claims everyone will be better off if we each act
  in our own interest
• Invisible hand of free market keeps balance

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Famous Egoist Ayn Rand

• Author, screenwriter
• Emigrated to US from USSR in 1926
• Promoted egoism which she called objectivism,
  or rational self-interest
• Wrote The Virtue of Selfishness

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Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIII Of the Natural
Condition of Mankind Concerning their Felicity
and Misery

• Nature hath made man so equal in the faculties of
  the body and the mindthe weakest has strength to
  kill the strongestby secret machination or by
  confederacy with others.
• As to the faculties of the mindI find yet a
  greater equality among men, for such is the
  nature of menthey will hardly believe there be
  any so wise as themselves.
• From this equality of ability arises equality of
  hope in the attaining of our ends.

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Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIII Of the Natural
Condition of Mankind Concerning their Felicity
and Misery

• Hereby it is manifest that during the time men
  live without a common power to keep them all in
  awe, they are in that condition which is called
  war, and such a war is of every man against every
  man.
• In such condition, there is no place for
  industry, because the fruit thereof is
  uncertainno commodious buildingno arts no
  letters no society continual fear and danger of
  violent death and the life of man, solitary,
  poor, nasty, brutish and short.

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Hobbes LEVIATHANCh XIV Of the First and Second
Natural Laws, and of Contracts

• The Right of Nature is the liberty each man has
  to use his own powerfor the preservation of his
  ownlife.
• For as long as every man holds this right of
  doing anything he likes, so long all men are in
  the condition of war.
• Right is laid aside, either by simply renouncing
  it or transferring it
• The mutual transferring of right is that which
  men call CONTRACT.

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Hobbes LEVIATHAN CH XV Of the Other Laws of
Nature

• But when a covenant is made, to break it is
  unjust and the definition of INJUSTICE is no
  other than the non-performance of the covenant.

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Hobbes LEVIATHANPart II Of CommonwealthCh
XVII Of the Causes, Generation, and Definition of
a Commonwealth

• covenants without swords are but words
• the laws of nature are contrary to our natural
  passions
• The only way to erecta common poweris to confer
  all their power and strength upon one man or upon
  one assembly of men

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Utilitarianism

• We should act to create the GREATEST GOOD for the
  GREATEST NUMBER
• GGGN

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Jeremy Bentham

• Godfather to JS Mill
• Promoted utilitarian ideas
• Created the Hedonic Calculus to measure pleasure

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Benthams Hedonic Calculus

• The Hedonic Calculus is an instrument for
  measuring the amount of pleasure to be created by
  a particular act

• Intensity
• Duration (length of time)
• Certainty (likelihood)
• Propinquity (proximity, nearness in space/time)
• Fecundity (fertility, ability to increase upon
  itself)
• Purity (pleasure minus the amount of pain )
• Extent (effects overall)

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John Stuart Mill

• Utilitarianism 1861
• Godson of Jeremy Bentham
• Raised on principle of utility by Bentham and
  Mill Sr.
• Improved upon Benthams ideas on utility

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• INTRINSIC good Good in and of itself
• INSTRUMENTAL good Good for getting to something
  else

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• MILL said we must measure both QUANTITY and
  QUALITY when measuring pleasures

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• MILL said there are
• HIGHER and LOWER pleasures.
• Humans can appreciate higher pleasures pigs
  cannot.

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• ACT Utilitarianism Consider the consequences of
  this act alone
• RULE Utilitarianism Consider the consequences of
  this act as a general practice (if most people
  did it most of the time)

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Immanuel Kant

• 1785, published Fundamental Principles of the
  Metaphysics of Morals

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• Kants Categorical Imperative
• Form One
• I. I am never to act otherwise than so that I
  could also will that my maxim should become a
  universal law
• (Modern version Do only that which you would
  will to be a universal law)

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• Kants Categorical Imperative
• Form Two
• II. So act as to treat humanity, whether in
  thine own person or in that of any other, in
  every case as an end withal, never as a means
  only
• (Modern version Treat all people, yourself
  included, as an end, never as merely a means)

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• Nothing can possibly be conceived in the
  world, or even out of it, which can be called
  good without qualification, except a Good Will.

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• Even if it should.... lack power to accomplish
  its purpose... like a jewel, it would still shine
  by its own by its own light, as a thing which has
  whole value in itself

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• Kants four examples of how to apply the
  Categorical Imperative
• Suicide
• 2. Lying Promise
• 3. Rusting Talents
• 4. Aid the Needy

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• How to become virtuous, according to Aristotle
• 1. Practice habits of virtue
• Intellectual virtues can learn from a teacher
• -Moral virtues can only learn through experience
  and habit
• 2. Aim for the Golden Mean
• The Golden Mean is the midpoint between extremes,
  between deficiency and excess

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• An example of the midpoint is the virtue of
  courage
• Too littlecowardly
• Courage just enough (the mean)
• Too muchfoolhardy
• 3. Strive for excellence (arete)
• Develop your character to be the best it can be

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• The word natural can mean
• The Norm characteristic of most members of a
  species
• Right purpose Using something as intended, for
  its intended purpose
• Occurring in nature not created artificially,
  happens on its own without human intervention

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• Sociobiology
• Systematic study of the biological basis of all
  forms of societal behavior in all species

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• St. Thomas Aquinas accomplished the GREAT
  SYNTHESIS
• Combining Aristotle with Christianity to produce
  a religiously based concept of the ordered
  universe with natural laws operating in it

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• Natural Law? Used and abused
• Social Darwinism Applies biological principles
  to societal constructs survival of the fittest
  justified exploitation of workers by
  industrialists
• Racism Presumes biological inferiority of some
  groups used to justify slavery, legal
  inequality, limit access to goods
• Sexism Woman and men naturally have different
  roles used to justify unequal legal,
  educational, and economic rights

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DO men and women reason differently about
morality?
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IF men and women reason differently about
morality, WHY might that be?

• Explanations for a difference MIGHT include
• BIOLOGY
• SOCIAL TRAINING
• PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

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BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES

• Brain structure
• Hormones
• Physical strength/ body and muscle mass
• Being able to get pregnant
• Giving birth

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SOCIAL/CULTURAL INFLUENCE

• Socialization from birth
• Education
• Expectations (vocational, familial)
• Role training as caregivers

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PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

• Freud
• Male life task differentiate from feminine,
  develop autonomy
• Female life task seek similarity to, and
  relationship with, feminine

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Traditional Ethical Perspectives

• FEMININE
• Responsibility
• Relationship
• Solidarity
• Personal
• Partial
• Private
• Natural
• Feeling
• Compassionate
• Concrete

• MASCULINE
• Rights
• Individual
• Autonomy
• Impersonal
• Impartial
• Public
• Contractual
• Reason
• Fair
• Universal

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Traditional justice theories of Ethics see people
as

• Detached (digital, isolated units)
• Self-sufficient
• Equal in social power
• Calculators and planners

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Traditional idea of rationality

• Leaves out a lot
• Exaggerates the role of reason
• Is a highly abstract idealization

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CARE ETHICS

• We are all embedded in a web of social
  relationships
• Ideal self of other theories is false, and it is
  not the only model
• Morally crucial work takes place in private
  areas of lives