Chapter One

1
Chapter One

• Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods
• Frank Hagan

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Scientific Research in Criminal Justice and
Criminology

• Scientific Research
• versus
• Common Sense

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Questions

• Is social research a science?
• In your opinion, is criminal justice and/or
  criminology a social science?
• If so, explain?

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SCIENCE

• Science refers to a system which combines
  rational explanation (theory) with the scientific
  method. Together, this combination leads to the
  development of knowledge.
• Knowledge is the creation of abstract symbols or
  ideas (concepts) which seek to explain reality,
  i.e., language, theories, and policies.
  Knowledge changes over time.
• The scientific method transforms plausible ideas
  of reality (theories) into hypotheses. The
  scientific method employs observation,
  measurement, replication, and verification
  (validity).

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Questions

• What is the probabilistic nature of science?
• and,
• How does it relate to predictions?

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Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry

• Objectivity neutrality
• Vigilance accuracy/error proneness
• Empathy when critiquing others
• Interdisciplinary efforts
• Methodological Narcissism substance/method

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Theory / Hypothesis

• Theory General statements regarding the
  relationship between two or more variables. An
  attempt to classify, explain, predict, and to
  understand the why and how of real events that
  deal with crime and criminal justice issues. In
  contrast, methodology attempts to explain what
  is.
• Hypothesis Specific statements regarding the
  relationship of two or more variables which are
  derived from general theories.

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Paradigm

• A model that incorporates theoretical and
  methodological ideas that give structure and
  perspective to a particular view of reality.
  This framework provides a means of analysis.
• Paradigms tend to shift over time.
• What is an example of a paradigm shift?
• Explain.

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Methodology

• A method which involves the collection of
  accurate facts and data regarding the nature of
  crime and crime policy.
• In contrast to theory, methodology attempts to
  explain the issue of what is.
• For example, what is the extent of crime?

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Pure versus Applied Research

• Pure research is the acquisition of knowledge
• for sciences sake.
• versus
• Applied research is research
• concerned with solving or addressing
• immediate policy problems.
• What is an example of applied research?

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Qualitative versus Quantitative

• Qualitative or ethnographic research tends to
  sensitize concepts as a basis for fundamental
  understanding (verstehen). Examples include
  participant observation, field studies, and
  interviews.
• Quantitative or empirical research is designed
  to operationalize and numerically measure
  variables for statistical analysis.

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS

• Theory -gt Deduction
• Hypothesis -gt Operationalization
• Research Design -gt Measurement
• Data Gathering -gt Analysis
• Findings -gt Induction
• Induction -gt Theory

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Research Process Terms

• Deduction theory to fact
• Induction fact to theory
• Concepts abstract tags put on reality (or
  constructs that capture the essence of reality,
  i.e., crime, recidivism, intelligence, police
  patrol, risk on parole, age, sex, race, etc.)
• Operationalization - How concepts will be
  measured quantifying a concept to a measurable
  cause/effect (variable) relationship. A
  working definition.

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VARIABLES

• Variables are human behavior characteristics that
  vary from individuals or groups of individuals.
  They take on different numerical values
  operationalized concepts.
• Examples of variables include age, gender, race,
  crime, police patrol, and recidivism.
• From variable categories we can attempt to
  predict causation and relationships.

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DEPENDENT VARIABLE

• A variable caused by another
  the presumed effect.
• Outcome
• Y
• Examples Crime, recidivism, sentence length,
  poverty

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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

• A variable that influences another variable the
  presumed cause.
• Predictor precedes in time the dependent
  variable.
• X
• Examples age, race, gender, poverty,
  type of crime, etc.

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Causation and Relationship

• Causation the concept that the action of one
  phenomenon affects the behavior of another, i.e.,
  causal effect the finding that the change in
  one variable leads to the change in another
  variable.
• Direction of association positive (when the
  independent variable moves in the same direction
  as the dependent variable) negative (when the
  independent and dependent variables move in
  opposite directions) or, no direction (if the
  independent variable is categorical).
• Example of a causal effect Individuals exposed
  to media violence are more likely to engage in
  violent behavior than similar individuals who
  have not been exposed to media violence.

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Example HypothesesPractical Exercise

• Determine the independent and dependent variables
  and the direction of association.
• The greater the social disorganization in a
  community, the higher the rate of crime.
• As ones self-control gets stronger, the fewer
  delinquent acts one commits.
• Crime is lower in those communities where the
  police patrol on foot.

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Forms of Research

• The Experiment Control group and experimental
  group based on a random sample.
• The Survey Effects are reported after the fact
  and focus on attitudes and opinions, i.e., verbal
  reports, questionnaires, personal interviews, and
  telephone interviews. Example National Crime
  Victimization Survey (NCVS).
• Content Analysis Objectively seeks to describe
  the content of previous messages, i.e.,
  reenactments via vignettes.
• Qualitative analysis participant observation,
  i.e., field studies which include field
  observation or interviews.
• Empirical or Quantitative Analysis Chi-Square,
  Regression, Correlations, Longitudinal Studies
  (NIJs Project of Human Development in Chicago
  Neighborhoods), etc.

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General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal
Justice

• Problem Formulation theory/hypothesis
  consideration, feasibility of doing research,
  literature review, timeliness of policy
  implications, availability of funding and
  sponsorships.
• Research design type of approach, i.e.,
  experimental or non-experimental.
• Data Collection choice of methods, i.e.,
  observation, questionnaires, interviews,
  reanalysis of existing data.
• Analysis and presentation of findings
• Conclusions, interpretations, and limitations

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Practical Exercise

• Study A society's suicide rate will increase
  with the level of alienation felt by its members.
• Q. What is the independent variable in this
  study?
• Q. What is the dependent variable in this study?
• Q. What is the direction of the relationship?
• ("" for positive,"-" for negative, "0" for not
  applicable or no direction)