Chapter 2: Exploring Space Understanding Space Sellers

1
Chapter 2 Exploring SpaceUnderstanding Space
(Sellers)
( NASA Space History)
2
Supplemental References
1. NASA Space History (Unmanned and Manned)
http//spaceflight.nasa.gov/index.html 2. First
V-1 Rocket Attack on Britain
http//e.com/worldwar2/timeline/v1.htm 3. V2
Guided Ballistic Rocket (Images from Rocket! By
Richard Maurer) http//accessweb.com/users
/mconstab/v2.htm 4. Untitled V-2 Doc
http//home.earthlink.net/gawebster/a4folder/a4.h
tml 5. Doody, Dave and Stephan, George, Basics
of Spaceflight Learners JPL, web document
by Diane K. Fisher http//www.jpl.nasa.gov.ba
sics
3
Supplemental References (Concluded)
6. Damon, Thomas D., Introduction to Space The
Science of
Spaceflight, Orbit Book Co., 1990 7. Meriam,
J.L., and Kraige, L.G., Engineering Mechanics

DYNAMICS, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.,
1997 8. The Solar System, Department of Physics
and Astronomy, University of Tennessee
http//csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/index.html
4
Awakening/Insights and Visions
Ancient Rocketry 400 BC (Greek) Bird on wire
using steam 100 BC (Greek) Sphere on water
bottle made to rotate Middle Ages Rocketry
1232 AD (Chinese) Fire arrows 1400-1600
(English) Improved gun powder / range
1400-1600 (French) Rocket Launch through tube
1500 (Chinese) Wan Hu and his winged chair
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Rocketry as a Science
William Casagrande (Dutch 1720s) Newtons
principles Endeavors such as steam powered
cars German and Russian Scientists (1800s)
Masses greater than 45 kg Powerful exhaust
flames
William Congreve (1800s) Modern stick rocket
Highly Successful in battle Used to pound Ft
McHenry William Hale (late 1800s) Improved
accuracy Spin Stabilization
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The Giants of Modern Astronomy
Nicolai Copernicus (1473 - 1543) Polish
origin Disputed Earth-centered universe of
Aristotle and Ptolemy On the Revolutions of
heavenly Bodies--published while he was on
his deathbed--proposed a heliocentric system
Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601) Challenged other to
dual over who was better mathematician Biggest
contribution was precise instruments before
telescope Measured parallax to tell comet was
farther away than moon Disputed Copernicus
claim of heliocentric system

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The Giants of Modern Astronomy (Continued)
Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) Became Brahes
assistant in Prague Studied Brahes data on
Mars Difficult because of significant
eccentricity Ironic in that it allowed
Kepler to formulate correct laws of
planetary motion --elliptical Copernicus
postulated circular orbits for planets Galileo
Galilei (1564 - 1642) Proved Copernicus
correct via his telescope Dispute of
Aristotle haunted some in church Provided
foundations for objects moving on Earths surface
Dynamics Gravity ( objects from
leaning tower of Pisa)
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The Giants of Modern Astronomy (Concluded)
Sir Isaac Newton Changed our understanding of
universe (Principia -1687) Newton 1 Object
in state of uniform motion unless external
force applied (essentially
Galileos law of inertia) Newton 2 F ma
(Aristotle thought F mv) Newton 3 For
every action there is opposite and equal
reaction Albert Einstein General Theory of
Relativity (1915) Newtons three laws of
motion break down when velocities approach
speed of light Newtons law of gravitation
only approximate in presence of very
strong gravitational fields time,
space warped Bottom Line Newton and Einstein
agree most of the time

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Dawning of Modern Rocketry(1800s-1900s)

• Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

• Robert H. Goddard

Space via rocket Liquid propellant for better
rng Exhaust vel limits spd/rng Once considered
mad, now honored Statue in Moscow Father of
Astronautics
Rocket better in vacuum Multi-stage to leave
earth Success with liquid propellant Gyro for
flight control Patents acknowledged by U.
S. Government New York Times admits its mistake
after 49 years
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Dawning of Modern Rocketry (Concluded)
Herman Oberth (1894-1989) Writings led to V-2
Werner von Braun as a follow-on
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Some Additional Scientists Who Should Be
Recognized
Poincare Suggested gravitational waves at the
speed of light Gauss Theory of surfaces Hilbert
Variational principle to gravitation James Clerk
Maxwell Gravitational wave similarity to EM
waves Euler 6 Degree of Freedom Equations of
Motion Lagrange Interconnected system requiring
more than one coordinate DAlembert ?F - ma 0
(dynamics problem as statics problem)
Laplace Transform methodology for solving
differential equations Coriolis Two or more axis
systems with relative rotation W. T. Thomson
Early missile instability problems
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WW 2 and the V-1 Rocket
Not a rocket but a small airplane with a jet
engine 3000 ft altitude 350 mph Nicknamed
buzz bomb Engine would cut out at preset
distance First launched against England on June
13, 1944
(v1.htm)
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The V-1 Rocket (Concluded)
Appropriately called weapon of reprisal 29000
built 8564 launched against England and
Antwerp Many airmen killed trying to destroy
V-1 factories
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WW2 and the V-2 Rocket
A true rocket Benzol and petrol fuel, nitric
acid oxidizer 56000-67200 lb thrust 3960
fps velocity, 48 mile altitude Advanced
guidance Three axis gyropilot Steerable
exhaust vanes Aerodynamic rudders
(Richard Maurer)
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V-2 Rocket (Concluded)
Potent Weapon No warning due to lack of sound
One ton warhead 11 mile CEP Winged version
planned Range to hit New York city
(Richard Maurer)
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Humans in Space
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Manned Space Flight
Yuri Gargarin of Russia into space Orbited
Earth on 4/12/61 Capability attributed to
very large rockets to carry hydrogen bombs
U.S. ICBM booster rockets smaller because Teller
and associates developed technology for
relatively lightweight warheads Project Mercury
(Man in a can) First astronauts military test
pilots Suborbital flight by Alan Shepard on
5/5/61 (beaten by Ham 1/31/61) 15 minute 22
second flight Altitude of 116.5 miles and
speed of 5,180 mph Three orbits by John Glenn
on 2/20/62 Mercury capsule carried by Army
Redstone rocket and AF Atlas rocket Purposes
of program were to investigate human functioning
in space and to recover man and spacecraft
safely Retro-rocket slowed capsule to take it
out of orbit and return it to Earth
Parachute descent, landing in ocean, and recovery
by ships
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Manned Spaceflight (Gemini)
Project Gemini Two man capsule propelled by
modified Titan missile (1965 and 1966)
Volume about the size of the front part of a
compact car 19 feet long and 10 feet
diameter Same basic design as Mercury
capsule As with Mercury, capsule designed
for one-time use and landing in sea
One of the flights about two weeks in duration
Gemini astronauts learned how to maneuver, change
orbit, and rendezvous and dock with other
spacecraft (Gemini 6 and 7 at distances of 1
foot to 295 feet for over 5 hours on 12/15/65)
Project recorded first space walk (Edward
White attached to Gemini 4 by 23 foot tether
line on 6/5/65) Landing on land not perfected
by U.S. but successfully used by the Soviets
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Manned Spaceflight (Apollo)
Project took men to Moon and back Met
President Kennedys challenge by achieving dozens
of technological breakthroughs Carried
three men in a volume the size of the inside of a
minivan Allowed work in a shirtsleeve
environment Provided hot water for meal
preparation Saturn 5 launched spacecraft on
its way to the Moon Height of 363 feet
and weight of 6.5 million pounds First
stage burning of liquid oxygen and kerosene to
provide 15 tons per second of mass flow
at liftoff Burning of liquid hydrogen
and liquid oxygen for second and third
stages Apollo spacecraft composed of
cone-shaped command module, cylindrical
service module, and spider-like lunar module
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Manned Spaceflight (Apollo) (Continued)
Command module 10 feet 7 inches high and 12 feet
10 inches in diameter Service module carried
electrical equipment, oxygen tanks, and
rocket engine for leaving lunar orbit and
returning to Earth 23 foot tall lunar module
carried two of the three astronauts to the
Moons surface and returned them to the command
module Only the command module landed back on
Earth Landed in the ocean Nothing (except
the astronauts) was reused For safety, lunar
landings made on smooth, level terrain Lunar
rover carried on last three flights to provide
astronaut transportation Could carry
astronauts for up to 6 miles to hills, cliffs,
and craters Each wheel powered individually
with silver-zinc batteries Rovers left
behind with about everything else carried to
surface
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Manned Spaceflight (Apollo) (Continued)
Disaster struck early on Three astronauts
killed in launch pad fire (1/27/67) During
actual flight, atmosphere of command module set
at about 1/3 pressure of the normal
atmosphere (5 psi pure oxygen) Things
burn as they would in a normal nitrogen-oxygen
atmosphere During checkout,
command module was pressurized to near normal
sea-level with pure oxygen Caused
materials to burn explosively 2.5 month
investigation resulted in a design for a
fireproof spacecraft Goal set by President
Kennedy still met Two lunar landings made
before the end of the sixties First was
Apollo 11 on 7/20/69
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Manned Spaceflight (Apollo) (Continued)
Near disaster happened with Apollo 13 on 4/13/70
Words Houston, we have a problem almost as
famous as one small step for man, one giant
leap for mankind On third day out, explosion
in oxygen bottle blew a hole in service
module and caused second oxygen bottle to leak
Fuel cells could not generate electricity
Command module disabled Three-man crew
squeezed in to two-man lunar module (LM)
Had to continue around the Moon
Return trip took six days when LM designed for
two Food dehydrated and required hot
water however, none available Careful
consumption allowed astronauts to limp home
Total of 31.5 pounds lost by
astronauts, but not their lives
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Manned Spaceflight (Apollo) (Concluded)
Apollo was a scientific, technological, and
political success Three manned flights around
the Moon (Apollo 8, 10, and 13) Six landings
on the Moon (Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, and
17) Apollo exploration provided valuable
scientific knowledge Understanding of Moon
history through a period of severe impacts by
asteroids and meteoroids to the present quiet
period Understanding of lunar rock and soil
composition Absolutely necessary for
establishment of a colony on the Moon Work on
Apollo provided crucial research and development
experience Building huge, reliable rockets
Developing life support systems Refining
orbital mechanics Miniaturizing electronic
devices Advancing computer technology

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Manned Spaceflight (Soyuz-Salyut and Apollo-Soyuz)
Soviet Union also planned manned flights to the
Moon Not successful because of booster
failures First stage booster had 30 rockets
burning simultaneously Need to have
balanced performance was not achieved In
contrast, Saturn only has five operating
simultaneously Soviets did have very
successful unmanned lunar exploration program
24 flights including first soft landing on
Moon First flight around the Moon with
pictures of the backside Two lunar roving
vehicles which returned over 100,000 pictures in
the space of about a year Several
flights which returned lunar samples to the
Earth Soviets concentrated on low Earth orbit
manned flights Soyuz spacecraft was the
workhorse of manned space activities
25
Manned Spaceflight (Soyuz-Salyut and
Apollo-Soyuz) (Concluded)
Soyuz has three segments 1. Equipment and
instruments on one end 2. Spherical shaped
living quarters and laboratory on the other end
3. Dome-shaped reentry vehicle in the center 60
Soyuz flights were made beginning in 1965 Seven
Salyut space stations have been launched
beginning in 1971 Initially placed in low
orbits which decayed in a matter of months
Later models remained in orbit for years Soyuz
has acted as a shuttle craft to bring crews to
and from Salyut Project Apollo-Soyuz
allowed the terminating Apollo program to be
completed by linking with the two-man Soyuz
spacecraft (July 1975) Docking in space of two
craft (joint experiments and good fellowship)
Return safely after two days of joint operations
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Manned Spaceflight (Skylab)
Project Skylab Follow-on to USAF Manned
Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Program Built from
the empty third stage of a Saturn 5 rocket
About the size of a small three bedroom house
First launch was on 5/14/73 into a 270 mile
orbit Crews and supplies ferried to Skylab
using Apollo vehicles Last Skylab mission
was for 84 days Significant research was
performed in solar physics, space physics, earth
science, and human biology Effects of
weightlessness Eating, sleeping, and
taking a shower in space
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Onward to the Planets
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
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Classification of Planets
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
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Unmanned Spacecraft
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Chronology of Solar System Exploration (Unmanned)
Explorer Varied missions ((1958 - 1980) Initial
launches from Kenya, Africa Atmospheric and
ionispheric studies Reactions between ozone,
sunlight etc. Led to discovery of Van Allen
belt Mariner (1962 - 1975) Mariners 1 thru
9 Venus flyby Mars flyby Mars
orbiter Mariner 10 Venus/Mercury flyby
(1973-75) Gravitational pull of Venus to
reach Mercury
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Chronology of Solar System Exploration (Unmanned)
(Cont)
Pioneer (1965 - 1992) Pioneer 6 thru 9
Solar orbit Pioneer 10 and 11 Jupiter
flyby
Jupiter and Saturn flyby Out of
the solar system Pioneer Venus Mapping
of Venus surface Orbited for 14 years, then
burned up Viking 1 and 2 (1975 - 1983)
Orbiter and lander High resolution electronics
to characterize structure/composition Looked
for life on Mars
32
Chronology of Solar System Exploration
(Unmanned)(Concluded)
Voyager 1 and 2 (1977 to Somewhere in Time)
Jupiter and Saturn probe On to Uranus and
Neptune Looking for edge of solar wind
influence Magellan (1989 - 1990) Highly
detailed mapping of Venus Galileo (1989 -
present) Venus - Earth - Earth Gravity Assist
(VEEGA) Toward Sun for Venus gravity assist
Two Earth encounters two years apart
Adequate velocity to reach Jupiter for mapping
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Unmanned Space Probes
Mercury
Venus
Mars
X
X
X
Mariner
Viking1,2
X
X
Magellan
PioneerV1,2
X
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Unmanned Space Probes (Concluded)
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
Galileo
X
Pioneer10
X
Pioneer11
X
X
X
X
X
Voyager1
X
Voyager2
X
X
X
X
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The Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle is a reusable spacecraft that
takes off like a rocket, flies in orbit like a
spaceship, and returns to Earth like an
airplane Emphasizes reusability Shuttles
crews and cargo to and from space Repairs
satellites on station
(NASA)
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The Future
Take off from runways, fly into space, return as
an airplane Establish permanent space
stations Establish space colonies
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Discussion Period
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The Copernian Model
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
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The nature of Ellipses
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
40
Planet Eccentricities
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
41
The Laws of Kepler
Kepler 1
Kepler 2
Kepler 3
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
42
Where Newton and Einstein Diverge
Mercury Precession
Orbit precession in time Partially accounted
for by perturbation of Newton Extra 43
seconds of arc per century from General
Theory of Relativity Light changing direction
in gravitational field Light from strong
gravitational field having wavelength
shifted to larger value
(The Solar System, Univ of Tennessee)
43
Mercury
(NASA)
44
Gemini
(NASA)
45
Apollo
(NASA)
46
Apollo-Soyuz
(NASA)
47
Skylab
(NASA)