Chapter 2: Theories of Personality

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Chapter 2 Theories of Personality

• Prof. M. Davis-Brantley

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Psychodynamic Theory

• Theory created by Sigmund Freud who was trained
  as a physician
• From Vienna, Austria and conducted much of his
  work during the late 1800s and early 1900s
• Primarily worked with upper-class, Viennese women
  who presented with physical difficulties with no
  organic cause
• These symptoms would often disappear and return
  without explanation
• He noticed that they would express strong
  emotions when hypnotized and was first to comment
  that the root of their difficulties were
  psychological

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Psychodynamic Theory Psychosexual Stages of
Development

• Oral Stage
• Gratification is obtained through oral activities
  such as sucking or biting
• This occurs during the 1st year of life and is
  how the child begins to learn about the world
• Early weaning can result in frustration and
  result in indulgence later on in life and these
  individuals are likely to be dependent, overeat,
  smoke, use alcohol excessively, or nail bite
• Anal Stage
• Gratification is obtained through contraction and
  relaxation of the muscles that control bowel
  movements. Early on these muscle work
  involuntarily.
• Toilet training is likely to take place during
  this time and the child is learning to
  distinguish between immediate gratification and
  self-control
• Phallic Stage
• Libidinal energy has moved to the genital area of
  the body (penis and clitoris)
• Children may be reprimanded for masturbatory
  behaviors that arent socially acceptable
• Children may begin to form affection for members
  of the opposite sex and the Oedipus/Electra
  complex may arise
• Oedipus/Electra complex typically resolves itself
  by ages 5 6 where the child begins to identify
  with the member of their own gender and seeing
  that individual as someone to learn from and they
  begin to incorporate gender roles and demands
  into repertoire
• Latency Stage
• Resolution of the complex leads to the entering
  into the repression of all sexual feelings until
  they reemerge during the genital stage in
  adolescence
• Genital Stage (Adolescence)

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Psychodynamic Theory Structure of Personality

• Psychic Structures are mental structures that
  represent aspects of behavior
• Id is the structure that is present at birth and
  represents the physiological drives
• Functions under the Pleasure Principle
• Ego begins in the first year of life because a
  childs demands cannot be met immediately
• Functions to under the Reality Principle and
  attempts to balance the Id and Superego
• Superego functions as a moral guardian and sets
  forth high standards for behavior
• Functions under the Moral Principle and acts as
  the conscience

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Psychodynamic TheoryStructure of the Mind

• Human mind is like an iceberg
• Conscious
• The clear and evident aspects of the personality
• What is evident to others
• Preconscious
• Not in immediate awareness but is able to brought
  into awareness by focusing attention
• Unconscious
• Not at all in awareness
• Can contain biological instincts such as sex and
  aggression

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Psychodynamic TheoryDefense Mechanisms

• Repression The ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas
  from awareness
• Regression The return, under stress, to a form
  of behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of
  development
• Rationalization The use of self-deceiving
  justifications for unacceptable behavior
• Displacement The transfer of ideas and impulses
  from threatening or unsuitable objects to less
  threatening objects
• Projection The thrusting of ones own
  unacceptable impulses onto others so that others
  are assumed to harbor them
• Reaction Formation Assumption of behavior in
  opposition to ones genuine impulses in order to
  keep impulses repressed
• Denial The refusal to accept the true nature of
  a threat
• Sublimation The channeling of primitive sexual
  or aggressive impulses into positive,
  constructive efforts

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Neo-Freudian Psychosocial Stages

• Trust vs. Mistrustbabies learn to trust others
  will care for their basic needs (birth to 1 year)
• Autonomy vs. Shame Doubtchild learns that they
  can be self-sufficient (1-3 years)
• Initiative vs. Guiltchildren learn to undertake
  many adult activities or be punished by parents
  and made to feel guilty (3-6 years)
• Industry vs. Inferioritychild learns to be
  competent and productive or unable to do anything
  (6-11 years)
• Identity vs. Role DiffusionBegin to
  understand/figure out Who am I? Or are confused
  about who they are (adolescence)
• Intimacy vs. IsolationPerson seeks companionship
  and love or can become isolated because of fear
  of rejection or disappointment (Young adulthood)
• Generativity vs. StagnationPerson explore
  contribution to next generation such as
  meaningful work, raising a family, etc(Middle
  Adulthood)
• Integrity vs. DespairPerson tries to make sense
  of life and sees it as meaningful or not
  goal-directed (Older adulthood)

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Learning Theories Behaviorism

• Focus on humans capacity to learn from their
  environment and to manipulate the world
• Learning-is the process that results in a
  relatively consistent change in behavior or
  behavior potential and is based on experience
• John Watson is considered the father of
  behaviorism
• He argued that previous use of introspection was
  not an acceptable means of studying behavior
• This was too subjective means of studying human
  behavior
• Observable behavior is key because states of
  consciousness are not verifiable and for that
  reason can never become data for science

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Behaviorism Classical Conditioning

• A basic form of learning in which one stimulus or
  event predicts the occurrence of another stimulus
• Ivan Pavlov-Russian physiologist studied
  digestion in dogs (1904)
• His experiment was interrupted when the dogs
  salivated randomly
• Actually were salivating in response to lab
  assistants entering the room
• Pavlov began experiments to demonstrate that the
  dogs salivated in response to stimuli that was
  associated with food

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Behaviorism Classical Conditioning

• Pavlov placed meat powder on the dogs tongue
  which led to the dog salivating
• The he repeated this process while ringing a bell
• After several pairings of the meat powder and the
  bell the two became associated
• When Pavlov would ring the bell the dog learned
  salivate in response to the bell because the bell
  and meat powder were conditioned

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Behaviorism Classical Conditioning

• Meat powder was the stimulus which lead to
  conditioning
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is the stimulus which
  elicits a response from an organism without
  learning (meat powder)
• Unconditioned Response (UR) is an unlearned
  response (salivation)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) the previously neutral
  stimulus that elicits a conditioned response
  (bell)
• Conditioned Response (CR) the response to a
  conditioned stimulus (salivation to the bell)

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Behaviorism Classical Conditioning

• Conditioning of Fears
• John Watson demonstrated ability to condition
  fears utilizing one year old Little Albert
• Wanted to condition fear of a lab animal-used a
  small white laboratory rat and banged steel bars
  when Little Albert would reach out and attempt
  to play with him

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Behaviorism Classical Conditioning

• What happens to CRs-can become extinguished when
  CSs are presented repeatedly but not paired with
  US
• Extinction is when the CS is presented but not
  paired with the US
• Ex Ringing the bell but not pairing it with the
  meat powder
• Spontaneous Recovery occurs when a previously
  extinguished behavior recurs after much time has
  elapsed

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Behaviorism Operant Conditioning

• In Classical Conditioning involuntary responses
  such as salivation are often conditioned whereas
  in Operant Conditioning voluntary responses such
  as pecking are conditioned
• Operant Conditioning is a simple form of leaning
  in which behavior is altered based on
  reinforcements and punishments
• B.F. Skinner demonstrated that hungry pigeons
  will learn to peck buttons to get food

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Behaviorism Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement is a stimulus that increases the
  frequency of a behavior
• Different from a reward in that by contrast a
  reward is a pleasant stimulus that increases the
  frequency of a behavior
• Positive Reinforcement increases the frequency of
  behavior when presented
• Ex Laughter Sr Joke telling
• Negative Reinforcement is a reinforcer that
  increases the frequency of a behavior when it is
  removed
• Ex Umbrella prevents getting wet in a rainstorm
• Ex Seat belt buzzer serves a Sr- function the
  annoying sound is terminated when the driver
  buckles up

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Behaviorism Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcements
• Primary Reinforcers are unlearned reinforcers
  such as food, water, warmth, pain, affection,
  etc
• Secondary Reinforcer is a stimulus that gains
  reinforcement value as a result of association
  with established reinforcers.
• Ex Money, tokens, etc

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Behaviorism Operant Conditioning

• Punishment is an unpleasant or aversive stimulus
  that decreases the frequency of behavior
• Many theorists dont recommend the use of
  punishment especially in rearing children
• These theorists assert that punishment by nature
  does not suggest an alternate more desirable form
  of behavior
• Punishment is warranted in the case of
  emergencies such as teaching a child not to run
  out into the street

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Behaviorism Operant Conditioning

• It is considered preferable to focus on rewarding
  individuals for desirable behavior vs. punishing
  them for undesirable behavior
• Consider everyday use of Operant Conditioning
  Socialization
• Children are punished for fighting and rewarded
  for sharing or getting good grades

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Social Learning Theory or Social-Cognitive
Theory
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Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

• Developed by Albert Bandura
• (Research on aggressive behavior BoBo Doll
  Study)
• Focus is on the importance of environmental
  influences on behavior and the cognitive
  processes that accompany
• Combines the principles of learning with an
  emphasis on human interactions in social settings

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Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

• Reciprocal Determinism
• Complex interaction of individual factors (person
  variables), behavior, and environment stimuli
• Person Variables
• Factors within the person that influence behavior
  such as expectancies, competencies, attitudes,
  beliefs, or prior Sr history
• These variables are in addition to your effect on
  the environment and the environments effect on
  you
• Ex Beginning an exercise regimen
• Reciprocal Determinism
• PersonEnvironmentBehavior

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Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

• Theorists believe that individuals are not just a
  result of their environments but they are
  self-aware and purposefully engage in learning
  and attempt to alter their environment in order
  to make Sr available
• Individuals do this through Observational Learning

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Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

• Observational Learning- the process by which a
  person alters their own behavior based on
  observations of another persons behavior
• Operant Conditioning Stimulus Sr results in
  learning
• With Social-learning observation individuals
  learn what behaviors are appropriate and get
  rewarded and which behaviors are not and get
  ignored or punished through direct observation
• Direct Sr are not necessary
• Learner can observe others through reading or
  seeing on TV or in movies
• Ex Style or interacting with others

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Cognitive Social-Learning Theory

• Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform
  adequately in a particular situation
• Self-efficacy influences your perceptions,
  motivation, and performance in many ways
• Do we attempt to do things we think we perform
  poorly? We avoid situations in which we will feel
  inadequate.
• Self-efficacy expectations are beliefs that we
  can accomplish certain things, such as speaking
  before a group or swimming
• Those with positive self-efficacy expectations
  have higher self-esteem

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Humanistic-Existential Theory
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Humanism

• Foundation Philosophers Humanists and
  Existentialists
• Focus on the meaning of life and self-awareness
• Adopted by Psychologists in the 1950s who wanted
  to respond the predominant Psychodynamic and
  Behavioral model
• Places individuals and self-awareness at the
  center of consideration
• Believe that people are capable of free choice,
  self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior
• Argue that humans are not as automatic as other
  theories assert

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Existentialism

• The view that people are completely free and
  responsible for their own behavior
• Existentialists believe that the focus is on
  higher mental processes that interpret current
  experiences and enable individuals to meet or be
  overwhelmed by the everyday challenges of
  existence

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Primary Humanistic Theorists Abraham Maslow and
  Carl Rogers
• Believed that the motivation for behavior comes
  from a persons unique tendencies, both innate
  and learned
• The motivation for behavior is to develop and
  change in positive directions toward the goal of
  self-actualization

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Self-Actualization is the constant striving to
  realize ones inherent potential to fully develop
  ones capacities and talents
• Since people are unique they must follow unique
  paths to reach self-actualization
• Drive for self-actualization at times comes into
  conflict with the need for approval from the self
  and others, especially when the person feels that
  certain obligations or conditions must be met in
  order to gain approvalThis is one of the main
  threats to personality development

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
• In order to progress towards the higher
  psychological need of self-actualization we must
  progress through other needs first starting with
  our most basic survival needs

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Self-Actualization

• Esteem needs- achievement, competence, approval,
  prestige, status
• Love and belonginglove and acceptance through
  intimate relationships, social groups, and
  friends
• Safety needsprotection from physical and social
  environment by means of clothing, housing, and
  security
• Biological needswater, food, elimination,
  warmth, rest, avoidance of pain, sexual release

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Where are you on the Hierarchy or Needs?

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Carl Rogerss Self Theory
• Defines the self as the center of life experience
  
• Self is an ongoing sense of who and what you are,
  your sense of how and why you react to the
  environment, and how you choose to act on the
  environment
• Choices are made based on your values and morals

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• Rogers viewed people as unique and with
  completely different perspectives
• Self-concepts consist of our impressions of
  ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy
• We view ourselves in terms of frames of reference
  which are our unique perceptions and attitudes of
  ourselves
• This is how we organize and understand our world,
  our perceptions, our experiences
• Every situation that occurs you eventually put a
  frame of reference around it so that it makes
  sense to you
• When we are confused it takes us longer to place
  a frame around the situation
• Ex Men arrive at your door with masks on

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Humanistic-Existential Theory

• In addition to self-concept, Rogers stated we
  develop self-esteem(self-regard)
• Development of self-esteem starts during
  childhood
• Children are said to develop high self-esteem
  when parents show them Unconditional positive
  regard
• U.P.R. refers to acceptance of the child
  regardless of their behavior at the moment
• Those who are shown Conditional positive regard
  are said to develop low self-esteem or conditions
  of worth
• Child is shown affection only when they behave in
  the desired manner. Child believes they are only
  worthy of love if the behave in certain ways or
  meet certain standards

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Humanistic-Existential Theory Healthy Personality

• Experience life here and now
• Must be open to new experience
• Be able to express their feelings and ideas

• Are their own person
• Trust their intuitive feelings
• Engage in meaningful activities to enhance life
• Capable of major change in their lives

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Personality and Human Diversity

• Sociocultural Theory

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Sociocultural Theory

• View that focuses on the roles of ethnicity,
  gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in the
  development of personality, behavior, and
  adjustment
• EX Here now vs. there then
• Hannah, the Korean American teenager

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Sociocultural Theory

• Individualist is a person who defines her/himself
  in terms of personal traits and gives priority to
  her/his own goals
• Tend to be those from the US or northern European
  nations
• Collectivist is a person who defines her/himself
  in terms of relationships to other people and
  groups and gives priority to group goals
• Cultures in Africa, Asia, and Central and South
  America tend to be more group oriented and comply
  with group norms and demands