Title: Was the Weimar Republic Doomed from its beginnings?
1Was the Weimar Republic Doomed from its
beginnings?
2The Second Reich
- Hereditary Kaiser (emperor)
- appoint/dismiss ministers at will
- Could dissolve Reichstag at will
- Head of the armed forces
- Especially revered in Prussian culture
- Responsible for Foreign Policy
- Weak Reichstag
- could not remove chancellor or government
ministers - Agree or reject laws proposed by Kaiser or his
government - Socialist SPD largest Socialist parliamentary
group in Europe - Reichsrat
- 26 state state governments
- Control over local affairs
- Could veto Reichstag legislation
3First World War
- Muddled start to war
- Pre-emptive strike due to Russian Mobilisation
- Wave of nationalistic fervour
- All parties pledge support for the war (including
SPD) - Civic Truce
- Socialist conference about war in Switzerland
- Pro-war versus anti-war
- Communists surprised at socialist support for
armies - Class war versus nationalism
- SPD expect political concessions from
establishment in return for support - Although prepared to wait until victory is
achieved
4War of Attrition
- Sclieffen Plan fails in 1914
- Consumer goods sacrificed for Total War
- Black Market profiteers could provide goods (at a
price) - Royal Navy Blockade starts immediately
- Food supply problems
- Food riots
- Strikes
- Lawlessness
- Disease
- 1916 Hindenburg and Ludendorff take supreme
command of war effort - Above Reichstag, Chancellor and even Kaiser
- Popular move whilst German armed forces are doing
well - Conditioned Germans to expect victory through
sacrifices being made
5The War Drags On
- German response to Blockade
- Unlimited Submarine Warfare
- Not as effective as blockade
- Brings US into war
- Russian Revolution provides hope to the Germans
- Potentially frees up millions of German soldiers
- Turn down peace overtures from allies
- Confident of victory through their own efforts
- Negotiations with Bolsheviks drawn out
- Had to restart Eastern Front campaign in 1918
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk punitive towards Russia
- Required vast manpower just to garrison newly
acquired territory
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71918 Clutching Defeat from the Jaws of Victory
- Ludendorff Summer Offensive
- New tactics
- Storm-troopers infiltrating enemy lines
- Initially successful, massive advances
- Outskirts of Paris
- Amazed to find allies have significant supplies
whilst their own rations / conditions were so
poor - US
- Allied counter-attacks easily recover German
gains - German forces out of emplacements
- Poor Morale
- Exhausted meagre supply chains
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9Staring Defeat in the Face!
- German Army in full retreat
- 2 million dead
- 6 million wounded
- Blockade starving civilians and military alike
- Defeatism and collapse of morale
- Turks, Bulgarians, Austro-Hungarians all
negotiating surrenders - German High Command realise that defeat is
imminent!
10Deflecting Blame!
- September 29th
- Generals suggest a new Civilian Government to
negotiate an armistice with Allies - Why?
11Deflecting Blame!
- Generals suggest a new Civilian Government to
negotiate an armistice with Allies - Why?
- They knew that continuing the war was hopeless
- They could avoid some of the blame for losing the
war - German High Command was basically running Germany
- They felt that the Allies would be more
sympathetic negotiating with Civilians rather
than with Military - Wilson!
12Chancellor von Baden
- October 3rd
- New Civilian Government
- Led by Prince Max of Baden
- Full Reichstag Support
- Including liberals and socialists
- First Job
- To negotiate the armistice/surrender!
- Amenable to Wilsons 14 points
13- I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at,
after which there shall be no private
international understandings of any kind but
diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the
public view. - II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas,
outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in
war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or
in part by international action for the
enforcement of international covenants. - III. The removal, so far as possible, of all
economic barriers and the establishment of an
equality of trade conditions among all the
nations consenting to the peace and associating
themselves for its maintenance. - IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that
national armaments will be reduced to the lowest
point consistent with domestic safety. - V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial
adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a
strict observance of the principle that in
determining all such questions of sovereignty the
interests of the populations concerned must have
equal weight with the equitable claims of the
government whose title is to be determined. - VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and
such a settlement of all questions affecting
Russia as will secure the best and freest
cooperation of the other nations of the world in
obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed
opportunity for the independent determination of
her own political development and national policy
and assure her of a sincere welcome into the
society of free nations under institutions of her
own choosing and, more than a welcome,
assistance also of every kind that she may need
and may herself desire. The treatment accorded
Russia by her sister nations in the months to
come will be the acid test of their good will, of
their comprehension of her needs as distinguished
from their own interests, and of their
intelligent and unselfish sympathy. - VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be
evacuated and restored, without any attempt to
limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common
with all other free nations. No other single act
will serve as this will serve to restore
confidence among the nations in the laws which
they have themselves set and determined for the
government of their relations with one another.
Without this healing act the whole structure and
validity of international law is forever
impaired. - VIII. All French territory should be freed and
the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done
to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of
Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of
the world for nearly fifty years, should be
righted, in order that peace may once more be
made secure in the interest of all. - IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy
should be effected along clearly recognizable
lines of nationality. - X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place
among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and
assured, should be accorded the freest
opportunity to autonomous development. - XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be
evacuated occupied territories restored Serbia
accorded free and secure access to the sea and
the relations of the several Balkan states to one
another determined by friendly counsel along
historically established lines of allegiance and
nationality and international guarantees of the
political and economic independence and
territorial integrity of the several Balkan
states should be entered into. - XII. The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman
Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty,
but the other nationalities which are now under
Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted
security of life and an absolutely unmolested
opportunity of autonomous development, and the
Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a
free passage to the ships and commerce of all
nations under international guarantees. - XIII. An independent Polish state should be
erected which should include the territories
inhabited by indisputably Polish populations,
which should be assured a free and secure access
to the sea, and whose political and economic
independence and territorial integrity should be
guaranteed by international covenant. - XIV. A general association of nations must be
formed under specific covenants for the purpose
of affording mutual guarantees of political
independence and territorial integrity to great
and small states alike.
14Wilsons 14 Points
- US President Wilson seemed to offer more
favourable terms with his 14 Points - Compared to the vindictive French!
- Wilson refused to negotiate with Kaiser or with
military autocrats - Belief in Democracy and Democratic Governments
- ButFrance and Britain not keen on handing over
negotiating rights to this Johnny come lately
15The Deteriorating SituationThe Kiel Mutiny
- German Navy had been starved of resources
- In port since Battle of Jutland, 1916
- Bored sailors
- Poor morale
- High command order fleet to sea for one final
desperate bid to unblock blockade - Sailors refuse to follow orders
- October 28th Mutiny
- Red flags prevalent
- Influence of Russian revolution
- Soldiers hear of sailors mutiny
- German soldiers begin to mutiny, desert,
surrender - Discipline collapses across Western Front
- Government realise that defeat is imminent!
- Need to act to forestall a full scale Communist
Revolution!
16Speeding up of negotiations
- 5th November
- Wilson agrees to use 14 points
- But adds that Germany liable for all damage
caused - Baden government prevaricates
- French and British furious to find US negotiating
without them - November 9th
- Allies revise demands
- Rhine to be occupied
- German Fleet to be handed over
- East Africa to be handed over
- All munitions to be handed over
- All Allied POWs to be freed immediately
17Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- Baden Government reeling from new demands
- Communists feel that conditions are ripe for a
revolution - Spartacist Revolution
- USPD (Independent Socialists)
- Karl Leibknecht and Rosa Luxembourg
- Support from Lenin
- Bavaria declared a Socialist Republic
- Soviet Republic of Germany declared!
- General Strike announced
18Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- Majority Socialists (SPD) oppose Spartacist
Revolution - Afraid of model of October Revolution!
- Would prefer a February Revolution!
- Call for Kaiser to abdicate to remove wind from
Spartacist demands - Kaiser dithers cannot make up his mind
- Chancellor Baden decides for him!
- Announces Kaisers abdication
- Establishes a Regency
- Calls for a new Constituent Assembly
- Chancellor resigns and hands power to SPD
19Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- Kaiser livid
- Kept on mumbling that he did not mean to
abdicate! - Treason!
- Barely any army left to defend him!
- Order collapsing throughout Germany
- Forces of order anxious of Communist Russian
Precedent - Bundled onto a train to Holland and exile
20Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- SPD Friedrich Ebert declared new Chancellor
- A Marriage of convenience
- General Groener
- Commander of German Army
- Contacts Ebert by secret phone to negotiate
giving him the support of the army - What demands did he make?
21Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- A Marriage of convenience
- General Groener
- What demands did he make?
- Ebert must oppose Communism
- Ebert must put down the Spartacist Uprising
- Ebert must leave the structure of the German Army
alone - This gives Ebert the ability to assert control
over Spartacist Revolution (takes time) - Army a little gung-ho in shooting their
countrymen with little remorse
22Bare-Face Outrageous Treason and 2 Republics in
One Day!
- November 9th
- Marriage of Convenience
- Allows Ebert to save Germany from immediate
revolution - But
- It allows the conservative army to remain intact
- Allows Ebert to conclude armistice with Allies
- Allies prefer socialist Germany to a Communist
Germany - Allies content that with the support of the army
Ebert can be negotiated with - November 11th
- Armistice signed at 11am
- Short term versus long term blame!
23Ebert tries to stabilise Germany
24Ebert tries to stabilise Germany
25January 1919 The war is over, but the problems
are not!
- Treaty of Versailles negotiations continuing
- Royal Naval Blockade in place
- Starvation/Hunger
- Influenza epidemic
- General Strike still continuing
- Russian Revolutionaries helping newly created
German Communist Party (KPD) - Anarchy and Chaos on Eastern Border
- Separatist governments being declared
- Communist infiltration of some Police forces
- Army barely maintaining discipline
- No money to pay soldiers!
- FreiKorps step in to fill vacuum
- Spartacist revolution being crushed violently
- Thousands killed in Berlin alone
- Bavaria restored
- Summary justice
26Is the enemy on the left or the Right?
- Treaty of Versailles negotiations continuing
- Royal Naval Blockade in place
- Starvation/Hunger
- Influenza epidemic
- General Strike still continuing
- Russian Revolutionaries helping newly created
German Communist Party (KPD) - Anarchy and Chaos on Eastern Border
- Separatist governments being declared
- Communist infiltration of some Police forces
- Army barely maintaining discipline
- No money to pay soldiers!
- FreiKorps step in to fill vacuum
- Spartacist revolution being crushed violently
- Thousands killed in Berlin alone
- Bavaria restored
- Summary justice
27Constituent Assembly ResultsJanuary 1919
28New Assembly, New Challenges!
- Chancellor Schiedemann
- Minority government
- SPD 163 out of 421
- A new constitution is written
- In Weimar
- Weimar thought to be the home of the German
liberal Intelligentsia - Goethe, Bach, Schiller, Nietzsche
- Text on pages 26/27 of big red book
- Analyse advantages and disadvantages of
Constitution - Treaty of Versailles Concluded
- June 1919
29Treaty of Versailles
- German Negotiating difficulties
- Change of Government
- Coalition government
- Compromises, disassociations, vascillations
- German army melting away
- Peoples priorities elsewhere in 1919
- Arrogant Prussian officer class negotiating
- Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau
- Treaty of Vienna Parallels?
- Germans expecting to be treated similar to France
in 1815 - Magnanimous Kings and emperors maintaining a
balance
30The Council of Four
- Wilson
- Idealistic, Naïve
- Clemenceau
- Old tiger, vindictive, pessimist
- Orlando
- Wanted rewarding for helping Allies
- Withdraws from negotiations!
- Lloyd-George
- Imperial strategist, Compromiser
- Many minor delegates attended
- But Germany not invited to any of the
negotiations - Merely summoned in June 1919 to sign the finished
document
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33Treaty Provisions
- 440 articles including
- Territorial Losses
- Creation of new buffer states between Germany and
Russia! - Plebiscites encouraged
- Sop to Wilson
- Austria specifically prevented from holding a
plebiscite! - Punitive actions to reduce Germany to a minor
power - Army 100,000, 6 ships, no tanks or aircraft
- Reparations
- Ominously to be decided!
- Blank Cheque J M Keynes
- War Guilt Clause
34Article 231
- The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and
Germany accepts theresponsibility of Germany and
her allies for causing all the loss and damage
towhich the Allied and Associated Governments
and their nationals have beensubjected as a
consequence of the war imposed upon them by the
aggression ofGermany and her allies.
35German Impact of Treaty 1 Cabinet Crisis
- Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau
- Disgusted at lack of German participation
- Allowed just 15 days to make observations on
document - Disgusted that Blockade continued throughout
- Horrified at vindictiveness of treaty
- Illegally published a draft copy
- German Public as horrified as he was
- Chancellor Scheidemann
- Considers resuming the war
- Army High Command point out that Germany has
effectively no military capability to defend
itself - Although Hindenburg considers a Heroic defeat!
- Chancellor resigns rather than sign such a savage
document
36Musical Chairs
- President Ebert tried to resign as President
- Bauer takes over from Scheidemann
- Reluctantly agrees to Treaty Provisions
- 237 to 138 in Reichstag
- Foreign Minister Muller signs on 28th June
- The SPD would forever be tarnished for having had
to sign the Dictated Peace Treaty
37German Impact of Treaty 2 Soldiers Revolt
- Prussian Military Tradition undermined by Treaty
- Officer corps horrified by savage cuts
- Freikorps units were no longer in legal limbo
they were now illegal - Frustrated army unable to turn on victorious
Allies - Turn on Weimar Government instead!
- Luttwitz Berlin Army Commander
- Erhardt German Marine Commander
- Kapp Prussian Civil Servant/Leader of the
Fatherland Party
38The Kapp Putsch
- The Plan
- March on Berlin
- Expel Socialist government
- Place Pliant Kapp as civilian figurehead of a new
military government - An Open Secret?
- Plotters asked Seeckt, Ludendorff and other
generals for their support - No support received
- But no hostility either
- Nobody reported the plotters
- Plotters assumed that German soldiers would not
fire on German soldiers!
39The Trigger
- February 1920
- Forced Demobilisation of army
- A requirement of the Treaty of Versailles
- 12,000 Freikorps ordered to disband
- Commander Luttwitz refuses
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41Who will defend the Republic?
- Chancellor Bauer asks General Seeckt to restore
order - General refuses
- Troops do not fire on troops when Reichswehr
fires on Reichswehr all comradeship within the
officer corps has vanished! - Wait and See policy (See who wins?)
- Most Soldiers remain neutral
- But government forced to flee Berlin
- To Dresden and then to Stuttgart
- Nationalist Von Kahr takes advantage to regain
control of Bavaria from Communists - Would become a centre of right wing tolerance
42Who will defend the Republic?
- The Left comes to the rescue
- General Strike ordered by Trade Unionists with
support of most working classes and even
Communists - 80,000 communists take control of Ruhr
- Refuses to cooperate with the new Kapp Government
- Kapp Ineffectiveness
- 4 days of rule were pretty ineffective
- Could not announce victory to newspapers as they
could not even find a working typewriter - Banks refused to issue loans or currency on
behalf of the unrecognised government - Strike paralysed business and industry
43Who will defend the Republic?
- Dilemma for Government
- What to do with the German Army?
- It had demonstrated that it could not be relied
on in times of crisis to defend the Republic from
attacks from the Right - However, it was still needed to defend the
Republic from threats from the left! - Eg 80,000 Communists in the Ruhr
- They would not lay down arms after the fall of
the Kapp Government - Army more than happy to shoot left wing rebels!
44June 1920 Elections
45June 1920 Elections
- Disaster for the SPD
- The writers of the Weimar constitution were
punished by its own provisions - Associated with Treaty of Versailles, Hunger,
Defeat, Instability, Poor economic conditions,
etc etc - SPD withdrew into opposition
- The future of the Weimar Government passed to
weak coalition governments who were at best
hostile to the Weimar constitution
46The Bill arrives
- April 1921
- Germany to pay 6.6 billion for damage caused
during First World War - 6 interest over 50 years of repayment plan
- To be paid in Gold Marks
- 7 of annual German Income
- Centrist Chancellor Fehrenbach resigns in horror!
47Wirth picks up the poisoned Chalice
- New coalition formed
- Zentrum, SPD and DDP
- Appoints DDP Rathenau as foreign minister
- Highly talented Jewish DDP politician
- Wirth attempts a complicated tactic
- Fulfillment policy
- Attempt to honour repayments in order to show
that Germany is incapable of repaying such a huge
bill - Sow seeds of hyperinflation
- Government did not fully try to control spending
- Subtlety lost on Allies
- France not concerned at any suffering on part of
Germans - Britain needed to repay loans taken from US
- Subtlety lost on German public
- Blamed everything on Treaty of Versailles or on
Weimar governments attempting to honour Treaty of
Versailles
48Upper Silesia Plebiscite
- Requirement of Treaty of Versailles
- Allowing locals to determine national identity
- Join Germany or Poland
- 717,122 votes to join Germany
- 483,514 votes to join Poland
- Clear majority and yet Poles claimed cheating and
started an insurrection - British troops sent to region to stop the
fighting - League of Nations compromise
- Germany to receive 2/3rds of area
- But Poland got the industrial 1/3 with most of
the coal mines - German fulfillment policy in tatters
- Why bother working with Treaty of Versailles
institutions if they are only going to work
against Germany no matter what! - Serious credibility blow for Wirth government
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50Treaty of Rapallo, 1922
- First political success for Weimar Government
- Negotiated by Rathenau
- Designed to outflank France
- Pariah Treaty
- The enemy of my enemy is my friend
- USSR and Germany agreed
- No reparations demands on each other
- Close economic ties
- Normalise diplomatic ties
- Secret military clauses
- Germans to be able to train in USSR
- USSR to receive German technical assistance in
weapons production - Diplomatically useful but domestically dangerous
- Confirmed to nationalists that Weimar was
secretly sympathetic to communist form of
government ( Jewish connection) - Rathenau assassinated in June 1922 by right wing
terror group
51The enemy is on the Right
52The enemy is on the Right
- Why might many Germans disagree with Wirths
plea? - Look at page 41
- Were Germans justified in being more concerned at
a left wing threat than the more subtle right
wing institutional threat!
53Gathering Economic Crisis
- Currency markets concerned at impact of
reparations on German government finances - German mark begins to slide
- 103,208,000,000 Marks
- Total budget for1922
- 187,531,000,000 Marks
- Amount of reparations required by Allies in 1922
(in gold marks) - France unwilling to bend
- Annoyed at Treaty of Rapallo
- Unconcerned at German difficulties
- Wirth resigns November 1922
54Free Fall
- Cuno business government takes over
- Minority Government
- French invasion of Ruhr to secure payments in
kind - Policy of non-cooperation initiated
- Hyperinflation kicks in as richest area of
Germany now under foreign control and not
producing anything anyway!
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56Was there an alternative to Hyperinflation?
- Yes,
- But it would involve
- Cutting expenditure
- Raising taxes
- These would have cut the deficit and reduce the
amount of money in the economy and hence
inflation. - So, why didnt the government choose this option?
- Why did it choose to print money instead?
57Was there an alternative to Hyperinflation?
- So, why didnt the government choose this option?
- It would have hurt industrial output and put many
businesses into bankruptcy - Unemployment would have risen
- Very unpopular in the immediate term!
- Hyperinflation would be unpopular but only once
the effects were felt - Tax increases and budget cuts would be felt
immediately - Perhaps a different government would be in place
when the consequences were felt?
58Free Fall
59Free Fall
60Restoring Economic Order
- Streseman came to power August 1923
- How did he go about restoring order
- Use page 49 Hite and Hinton
- Use page 30 Collier
61Restoring Economic Order
- Stresemanns Fulfillment policy?
- Hjalmar Schacht appointed to Reichsbank
- Hans Luther the new Finance minister
- New currency created
- Rentenmark
- 1 Rentenmark 1,000,000,000,000 Reichsmarks
- Supply of new currency strictly limited
- 3,200,000,000 in total
- Backed by bonds
- Cut government expenditure
- Redundancies for 700,000 government workers
- Called off Passive resistance in Ruhr and repaid
some reparations - Allow France to withdraw from Ruhr
- A commission set up to look at reparations
payments - Dawes Plan
62Threats to Stresemann
- Economic Threats
- Difficulties and sacrifices required to stabilise
new currency - Regional Threats
- Saxony and Thuringia
- Communists had cooperated with Socialists to take
control of these states - Bavaria
- Concerned at the Communist takeover of
neighbouring States, The Right wing Kahr requests
German Army declare loyalty to him before to
Berlin
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64Horses for courses?
- Stresemann showed his nationalist leanings in his
treatment of the two regional threats - Saxony and Thuringia
- Germany army sent to overthrow the
communist/socialist governments - SPD horrified and withdrew support from
Stresemann coalition - Bavaria
- He does not sack von Lossow (army commander) or
overthrow Kahr - Kahr and Lossow or thankful to the conservative
Stresemann (will be useful shortly)
65The Munich Putsch
- Adolf Hitlers attempt to take power in Munich
and march to Berlin to replace the Weimar
government. - Why did it take place in Bavaria?
- Why did this take place in November 1923?
66The Munich Putsch
- Why Bavaria?
- Very Conservative Catholic Region
- Hostile to Weimar Cosmopolitan attitudes
- Resentful at being on periphery of power base
- Deeply hostile to anti-religious sentiments of
Communism - Von Kahrs Right Wing Government
- Took power in 1920 Putsch
- Replaced Communist Government
- Violent overthrow culturally acceptable?
- was deeply hostile to communists and socialists
- Allowed Right wing groups to thrive
- Persecuted Left wing groups
67The Munich Putsch
- Why November 1923?
- Inspired by Mussolinis March on Rome, 1922
- Clock is ticking
- National Socialists thrive on discontent
- Stresemanns economic reforms are already kicking
in - Stability returning to Germany
- Stresemann getting the credit
- Misread Stresemanns leniency to Kahr
- Thought it was a sign of weakness rather than
strength - Misread Kahr and Lossow
- Thought they were allies
- They were conservative monarchists who were
deeply uneasy about some of the socialist aspects
of National-Socialism (see page 52)
68A comedy of errors?
- Poorly organised
- Lack of coordination
- Did not have necessary arms
- Poor communications systems
- Relied on Blackmail
- They required the support of Kahr and Lossow to
allow a march on Berlin to have any chance of
success - Errors
- Ludendorffs Traditional value system
- German officers couldnt lie!
- Allowed Kahr and Lossow to reassure their wives!
- Indecisive
- Hitler had a nervous collapse when he found out
kahr had gone - Ludendorff had to decide to march to city centre
- Army remains loyal to right wing Kahr
- Why shouldnt they? More Nationalist less
Socialist than Nazis - Cowardice
- Hitler does a runner when the man next to him is
shot - Ju-Jitsu lady disarms frantic Hitler
69Why did the Weimar Republic Survive 1919 1923?
- Did the Weimar Government stand a chance?
- Which of the following posed the greatest threat
to Democracy taking root in Germany - Place them in an order of greatest threat to
democracy - Limited Nature of the 1918 German Revolution
- The Weimar Constitution
- The Treaty of Versailles
- Right Wing Extremism
- Left Wing Extremism
- The Economic Crisis
- Attitudes of the German elite
- Attitudes of ordinary Germans
70Why did the Weimar Republic Survive 1919 1923?
- Limited Nature of German Revolution
- The Weimar Constitution
- The Treaty of Versailles
- Right Wing Extremism
- Left Wing Extremism
- The Economic Crisis
- Attitudes of the German elite
- Attitudes of ordinary Germans
- Compare your list to your neighbours
- Do you need to rewrite your list?
- Can you agree on a common list?
71Why did the Weimar Republic Survive 1919 1923?
- Page 57 Hite and Hinton
- Read events 1 to 12
- With a partner decide whether you agree with a)
or with b) or with neither!
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731924 1929 The Golden Age of Weimar?
- What evidence can you find that life got better
for the majority of Germans between these years?
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