Acknowledgement

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(No Transcript)
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Acknowledgement

• Information contained in this presentation is
  based on material found in L.C. Perelman, J.
  Paradis, and E. Barrett, The Mayfield Handbook of
  Technical and Scientific Writing, Mayfield
  Publishing Company, Mountain View, CA, 1998.

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The Eight Parts of Speech

• Nouns
• Pronouns
• Verbs
• Adjectives (including Articles)
• Adverbs
• Conjunctions
• Prepositions
• Interjections

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Nouns

• A noun is a word that names a person, a place, or
  a thing.

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Countable Nouns

• Countable nouns typically are discrete units that
  can be counted chip, electron, transistor
• Countable nouns can be made plural chips,
  electrons, transistors
• Singular countable nouns require an article or
  some other determiner a chip, an electron, the
  transistor
• Plural countable nouns require an article only to
  restrict the interpretation of the noun chips,
  the (specific) chips electrons, the (specific)
  electrons, transistors, the (specific) transistors

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Uncountable Nouns

• Uncountable nouns refer to substances, concepts,
  or general terms for classes of items
• Oxygen (substance)
• Education (concept)
• Equipment (general term)
• Uncountable nouns do not require an article when
  the noun is referred to in a general sense use
  the only when the noun is referred to in a
  specific sense
• Education is important
• The equipment in the room

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Number in Nouns

• Countable nouns can be either singular or plural.
• Uncountable nouns usually are singular.
• Collective nouns refer to a group acting as a
  unit class, team, herd, litter, group
• When replacing a noun with a pronoun, choose a
  pronoun that agrees with the noun in number.

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Plural Nouns

• A regular noun forms its plural by adding s or
  es to its singular form.
• Some nouns have irregular plural forms
• Deer deer
• Foot feet
• Thesis theses

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Plural Acronyms and Numbers

• An apostrophe is optional to form the plural of
  most acronyms and numbers
• 7s 7s
• PALs PALs
• An apostrophe is required to form the plural of
  lower-case letters
• as bs abcs

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Proper Nouns

• Proper nouns have names
• Thomas Edison
• Figure 4
• The first letter of each word in a proper noun is
  capitalized
• Professional Communication Skills
• Georgia Institute of Technology
• Jay Schlag

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Common Nouns

• Common nouns do not have specific names
• scientist
• figure
• Common nouns are not capitalized
• engineer
• writer

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Noun Forms

• The nominative case is the standard form for
  nouns
• Singular student man
• Plural students men
• The possessive case is the form used to show
  possession
• Singular students mans
• Plural students mens

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Possessive Nouns

• Add s to a singular noun NOT ending in s
• Edisons, childs, citys, deers, mouses
• Add or s to a singular noun ending in s
• Thomas or Thomass
• Add to a plural noun ending in s
• Students, cities, states
• Add s to a plural noun NOT ending in s
• Womens, childrens, deers, mices

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Types of Pronouns

• Personal pronouns
• Possessive pronouns
• Demonstrative pronouns
• Relative pronouns
• Indefinite pronouns
• Reciprocal pronouns
• Reflexive/intensive pronouns
• Interrogative pronouns

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Personal Pronouns

• Personal pronouns refer to people and things
• Nominative Case I, you, he, she, it, we, you,
  they
• Objective Case me, you, him, her, it, us, them,
• Possessive Case my, your, his, her, its, our,
  their, mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

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Nominative Pronouns

• Nominative pronouns are used as subjects or
  predicate nominatives
• They are working on their literature reviews.
• The winner is he.
• It is I.

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Objective Pronouns

• Objective pronouns are used as direct objects,
  indirect objects, and objects of the preposition
• The results disappointed him (direct object).
• June gave him (indirect object) the results.
• June gave the results to him (object of the
  (preposition).

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Them an Objective Pronoun

• Them is an objective pronoun. Do not use them as
  a demonstrative pronoun in place of these and
  those.
• Unacceptable
• He liked them socks.
• Use them only as the object by itself
• Acceptable
• He liked those socks.
• He liked them.

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Possessive Pronouns

• Possessive pronouns show ownership and do not
  take an apostrophe
• Its cost
• Her plan The plan is hers.
• Their project The project is theirs.

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Possessive Pronouns (2)

• Use possessive pronouns before present participle
  (-ing) verb forms
• The crowd cheered his making a three-point
  basket.
• The man was proud of his scoring 100 on his exam.

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Personal Pronoun Cases
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Who/Whom

• For formal writing, the cases are as follows

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Who/Whom

• When who introduces a dependent clause after a
  preposition, use the nominative case of the
  pronoun
• Return the paper to who is in charge.
• Give this book to whoever wants it.
• Use whom for the objective case
• The project was awarded to an engineer whom I
  knew well.
• I spoke to the engineer to whom the project was
  awarded.

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Demonstrative Pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns refer to things
• This, that, these, those
• This propagation delay line is longer than that
  one.

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Relative Pronouns

• Relative pronouns show the relationship of a
  dependent clause to a noun in a sentence
• That, which, who, whom, what
• A dependent clause beginning with that contains
  essential information. Such a clause is not
  separated from the independent clause by
  punctuation
• The circuit that contains an XOR chip is broken.
• A dependent clause beginning with which contains
  non-essential information. Such a clause must be
  separated from the rest of the sentence by
  commas
• This circuit, which is not working, has not been
  debugged.

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Indefinite Pronouns

• Indefinite pronouns make indefinite references to
  nouns
• Anyone/anybody someone/somebody
  everyone/everybody everything/nothing
• Indefinite pronouns are usually singular and
  require a singular verb
• Everyone is going to the basketball game.
• Anyone in the class is capable of writing a
  technical paper.
• Some (people) are more conscientious than others.

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Indefinite Pronouns (2)

• Indefinite pronouns, such as both, few and many,
  require a plural verb
• Many (students) use XOR chips in circuits.
• Few (students) remain in the lab after the class.
• Indefinite pronouns, such as all, any, more,
  most, none, and some, may be either singular or
  plural depending on the meaning of the sentence
• Singular Some of my homework is finished.
• Plural Some of these disks are chipped.
• Singular All of the coffee is brewed.
• Plural All of the students are happy.

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Reciprocal Pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns refer to individual parts of
  plural terms
• Each other, one another
• The two students helped one another on the
  project.
• Without help from each other, completing the
  project would have taken much longer.

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Reflexive/Intensive Pronouns

• Reflexive/intensive pronouns end in -self or
  -selves and intensify the nouns to which they
  refer
• Myself, yourself, itself, himself, herself,
  ourselves, yourselves, themselves
• I, myself, have not started on the project.
• You, yourself, know that you have made much more
  progress on the project than I have.

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Interrogative Pronouns

• Interrogative pronouns are used in questions
• Who, whose, whom, which, what
• Who is Thomas Edison?
• Whose circuit board is on the table?
• Which project is more expensive?
• What caused the computer to crash?

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Verbs

• Verbs describe actions
• What has happened
• What is happening
• What will or might happen
• Verbs describe a condition
• Verbs must agree in number with their subjects

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Verbs (2)

• Verbs, with the addition of auxiliary verbs,
  sometimes express
• Tense
• Mood
• Voice
• Verbs can be modified (described) by adverbs
• Benjamin properly debugged the circuit.

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Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

• Verbs can be divided into two categories
  transitive and intransitive
• Transitive verbs are followed by direct objects
• Intransitive verbs do not have a direct object

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Transitive and Intransitive Verb Usage

• Unacceptable
• When presenting their proposals, many students
  raise to the occasion.
• In the Malthusian model of unrestrained growth,
  the linear growth function rises the population
  growth upward.
• Acceptable
• When presenting their proposals, many students
  rise to the occasion.
• In the Malthusian model of unrestrained growth,
  the linear growth function rises.
• If something is unclear, the student should raise
  his/her hand.

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Present Tense Verbs

• Use the simple present tense to express facts,
  states of being, or actions that are occurring or
  that occur regularly
• As the object approaches the speed of light, its
  mass increases.
• We communicate frequently via e-mails.
• Use the simple present tense to express future
  actions that are scheduled to occur
• The spring 2006 term begins in January of next
  year.

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Past Tense Verbs

• Use the simple past tense to express actions
  completed at a specific time in the past. To form
  the past tense add the ending ed to the base
  form of the verb.
• As the object approached the speed of light, its
  mass increased.
• In the Los Angeles basin during December 1982,
  acid fog reached a level of acidity comparable to
  that of vinegar.

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Future Tense Verbs

• Use the future tense to indicate action that will
  occur at some point after the present.
• Express the future tense in one of the following
  ways
• Using a verb in the simple present with a future
  adverb
• As the object approaches the speed of light, its
  mass eventually increases.
• Using the auxiliary verb shall or will
• As the object approaches the speed of light, its
  mass will increase.
• When the object approaches, we shall calculate
  its speed.
• Using the expression is going to or are going to
  followed by a verb
• As the object approaches the speed of light, its
  mass is going to increase.

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Present Perfect Tense Verbs

• Use the present perfect tense to express states
  or actions that occurred at an unspecified time
  in the past, were repeated in the past, or begun
  at an unknown or arbitrary time in the past and
  continue into the present.
• Form the present perfect tense by using the
  present tense form of the auxiliary have and the
  past participle of the main verb.
• In the past ten years, optical networking has
  emerged as one of the cutting-edge technologies.
• For more than a century, researchers have known
  that direct eye contact with most laser beams
  causes severe eye injury.

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Present Perfect Tense Verbs (2)

• The present perfect tense is commonly used with
  the following adverbs
• Already, always, ever, just, lately, never,
  recently, since, still, and yet
• The circuit has already been debugged.
• Lately, we have encountered a number of problems
  with our laser pointer.

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Past Perfect Tense Verbs

• Use the past perfect tense to express states or
  actions that began and came to an end before a
  specified point in the past.
• Use the past tense form of the auxiliary have and
  the past participle of the main verb to form the
  past perfect tense.
• By 2000, scientists determined that the results
  of the experiment they had conducted in 1990 were
  inconclusive.

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Future Perfect Tense Verbs

• Use the future perfect tense to express states or
  actions that will have come to an end before a
  specific point in the future.
• Form the future perfect tense by using the
  auxiliaries will have and the past participle of
  the main verb.
• By the end of the semester, the technical
  interest group will have completed its report.

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The Progressive Form of Verbs

• Use the progressive form in conjunction with any
  verb (present, past, future, present perfect,
  past perfect, future perfect) to express an
  action that is ongoing with respect to a point in
  time or another action.
• Construct the progressive form by using a form of
  the auxiliary verb be and the present participle
  of the main verb.
• The Internet is revolutionizing the way we
  communicate.
• Among the younger generation,, letter writing was
  disappearing even before the Internet.
• Letter writing will be disappearing even more
  rapidly in the next ten years.

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The Progressive Form of Verbs (2)

• States or facts do not use the progressive form
  of verbs the simple present tense or simple past
  tense is used instead.
• Verbs that commonly describe states are the
  following
• Appear, appreciate, be, believe, belong, care,
  want, compromise, consider, contain, cost,
  desire, dislike, doubt, fear, forget, have, hear,
  love, look, resemble, think
• When we compare our students standardized test
  scores with those of graduate students from other
  institutions, it appears that our students score
  higher.

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Adjectives

• Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns.
• Although adjectives usually precede the words
  they modify, they may follow them and be
  separated by a form of the verb be or a
  substitute verb such as seems or feels.
• The beautiful rose
• The rose is beautiful
• The rose looks beautiful

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Types of Adjectives

• Determiners These are special adjectives that
  identify the noun being described or that specify
  the quantity of the noun. Determiners include
• Demonstrative adjectives
• Possessive adjectives
• Quantifiers
• Articles

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Demonstrative Adjectives

• Demonstrative adjectives are special adjectives
  or determiners used to identify or express the
  relative position of a noun in time or space. A
  demonstrative adjective comes before all other
  adjectives in the noun phrase.
• Common demonstrative adjectives are this, that,
  these, those
• This and that are used with singular nouns
• These and those are used with plural nouns

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Demonstrative Adjectives (2)

• Examples of demonstrative adjectives
• The results of research done with broadband
  antennas indicate a need for these antennas in
  certain applications.
• Furthermore, this research revealed that these
  antennas have unlimited potential for use in
  future telecommunication systems.
• Demonstrative adjectives are sometimes called
  demonstrative pronouns when they are followed by
  a noun
• This research is tedious. demonstrative
  adjective
• This is tedious. demonstrative pronoun

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Possessive Adjectives

• Possessive adjectives are special adjectives or
  determiners used to express possession of a noun
  they precede all other elements in a noun phrase.
  If you use possessive adjectives, you do not need
  articles.
• My testbed has a problem.
• The testbed has a problem.
• Choose a possessive adjective that agrees in
  person, number, and gender with the possessor
  noun, not the noun being possessed.
• Austin Palmer, son of Gail Palmer, was born on
  September 11, 1971, in Ohio. His mother is from
  Virginia.
• The possessive adjective his agrees with the
  gender of the possessor, Austin Palmer.

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Quantifiers

• Quantifiers are determiners that are used to
  express the quantity of the noun being described.
  Like possessive adjectives, quantifiers usually
  precede all other elements in a noun phrase.
• All the undergraduate students in electrical
  engineering are required to use computers.
• Articles and demonstrative adjectives can be used
  before the quantifiers few and little, but
  articles are not usually used with a quantifier.
• A few problems in optics can only be solved
  numerically.
• This little mistake in measuring the current can
  have devastating results.

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Participial Adjectives

• A participial adjective is formed by adding to
  the base form of the verb either the present
  participial ending ing or, unless the verb is
  irregular, the past participial ending ed.
• In quantum electronics, a tunneling electron is
  one that overcomes a potential energy barrier.
• When two electrons come close to each other, the
  resulting electrical force causes them to repel.
• Passive participial adjectives are formed from
  the past participles of verbs. They describe
  nouns that are receiving the effects of an
  action.
• The information theory being unknown to them,
  electrical engineers in the mid-twentieth century
  were astonished by Shannons research.

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Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

• A comparative or superlative degree adjective is
  used to compare the degree of some quality of one
  item with the degree of the same quality in
  another item comparative or in multiple others
  superlative.
• Adjectives can appear in the positive,
  comparative, or superlative degree
• Strong positive base form robust
• Stronger comparative used to compare two
  items more robust
• Strongest superlative used to compare more
  than two items most robust

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Comparative Adjectives

• The comparative degree is usually formed with an
  er ending or the word more or less
• We need to find a better solution to this
  problem.
• They used a smaller resistance for this part of
  the circuit.
• We need to give a more appropriate explanation of
  the terms we used in the formula.
• He will have to provide a less hypothetical
  approach to describe his views .

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Superlative Adjectives

• The superlative is usually formed with an est
  ending or the word most or least
• We used the fastest computer we could find to
  solve the equation.
• Unfortunately, it was not the least expensive
  machine.
• These are his most prized scientific readings
  information theory.

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Articles

• Articles are a type of determiner. Articles
  indicate the specificity or nonspecificity of the
  noun or noun phrase they modify.
• Articles can be divided into two groups
• Definite (the)
• Indefinite (a, an)

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Articles

• The definite article the signals to the reader
  that the noun is specific, not arbitrary, and not
  new to the reader.
• The IEEE style for citations
• The broken chip
• The definite article the is used if you intend a
  singular noun to refer to an entire class of
  items. This is particularly common with species
  of animals, inventions, or musical instruments.
• The Internet has revolutionized communication
  among the global community.

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Articles

• An indefinite article signals that the noun is
  nonspecific or that other examples of the noun
  exist. Use an indefinite article (a or an) if a
  noun is new to the reader or is an arbitrary
  example of the class to which that noun belongs.
• A computer is required to perform a circuit
  simulation.
• A specific airflow velocity
• An electronic circuit

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Choosing between a and an

• Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel
  sounds. Note Some words whose first letter is a
  consonant (hour) actually begin with a vowel
  sound, and other words whose first letter is a
  vowel (unit) actually begin with a consonant
  sound.
• Unacceptable
• A electron, a oxidant, a hour
• An human gene, an unique solution
• Acceptable
• An electron, an oxidant, an hour
• A human gene, a unique solution

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Is an Article Necessary?

• Use an article or determiner if you are referring
  to one or all of a noun.
• Singular countable nouns always refer to a
  specific amount (one), so they always require an
  article (unless another determiner is present).
• Unacceptable
• Laser diode is semiconductor device that produces
  coherent radiation in visible or infrared
  spectrum when current passes through it.
• Acceptable
• A laser diode is a semiconductor device that
  produces coherent radiation in the visible or
  infrared spectrum when a current passes through
  it.

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Is an Article Necessary? (2)

• Plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns
  require an article if they refer to a specific
  group or subset of the noun.
• Unacceptable
• Sleeplessness suffered by graduate students is
  almost universal.
• Acceptable
• The sleeplessness suffered by graduate students
  is almost universal.

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Which Article Is Appropriate?

• In general, a definite article should be used if
  the noun is unique or known to the reader, and an
  indefinite article should be used if the noun is
  one of a group or is new to the reader.
• Unacceptable
• Packet is the unit of data that is routed between
  an origin and a destination on the Internet or on
  any other packet-switched network.
• Acceptable
• A packet is the unit of data that is routed
  between an origin and a destination on the
  Internet or on any other packet-switched network.

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Which Article Is Appropriate? (2)

• Never use an indefinite article with a plural
  countable noun or with an uncountable noun.
• Unacceptable
• Unlike a bipolar junction transistors, a MOS
  transistors have a negative thermal coefficient.
• An oxygen is essential for human life.
• Acceptable
• Unlike bipolar junction transistors, MOS
  transistors have a negative thermal coefficient.
• Oxygen is essential for human life.

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Which Article Is Appropriate? (3)

• Do not use the definite article when referring to
  uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns in a
  general sense.
• Unacceptable use of a definite article
• The discovery of the transistors led to the
  invention of the integrated circuits.
• A most commonly used protocol is TCP/IP.
• First cellular telephone was a type of short-wave
  analog transmission.
• Acceptable use of a definite article
• The discovery of transistors led to the invention
  of integrated circuits.
• The most commonly used protocol is TCP/IP.
• The first cellular telephone was a type of
  short-wave analog transmission.

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Articles with Demonstrative Adjectives

• Demonstrative adjectives are determiners.
• Noun phrases take only one determiner therefore,
  do not use an article if the noun is modified by
  a demonstrative adjective.
• Unacceptable
• The purpose of the this thesis.
• The purpose of this the thesis.
• Acceptable
• The purpose of this thesis.
• The purpose of the thesis.

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Articles and Possessive Adjectives

• Possessive adjectives are determiners.
• Noun phrases take only one determiner therefore,
  do not use an article if the noun is modified by
  a possessive adjective.
• Unacceptable
• The purpose of my the thesis.
• The purpose of the my thesis.
• Acceptable
• The purpose of my thesis.
• The purpose of the thesis.

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Articles and Proper Nouns

• In general, do not use an article with a proper
  noun unless the noun contains a prepositional
  phrase.
• Unacceptable
• The Georgia Tech
• The America
• Acceptable
• Georgia Tech
• The United States of America

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Articles and Proper Nouns (2)

• Use a definite article with a proper noun that
  includes or refers to geographical terms such as
  river, ocean, bridge, region, or building
• Unacceptable
• James River
• Atlantic Ocean
• South
• Acceptable
• The James River
• The Atlantic Ocean
• The South

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Articles and Proper Nouns (3)

• Use a definite article with plural lakes,
  mountains, and islands
• Unacceptable
• Blue Ridge Mountains
• Galapagos Islands
• Acceptable
• The Blue Ridge Mountains
• The Galapagos Islands

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Articles and Proper Nouns (4)

• Do not use an article with singular lakes,
  mountains, and islands.
• Unacceptable
• The Smith Mountain Lake
• The Edisto Island
• The Lake Santee
• Acceptable
• Smith Mountain Lake
• Edisto Island
• Lake Santee

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Adverbs

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other
  adverbs they introduce clauses.
• Categories of adverbs
• Attitude adverbs
• Sentence adverbs
• Time adverbs
• Manner adverbs
• Quantity adverbs

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Attitude Adverbs

• Some common attitude adverbs are fortunately,
  luckily, and obviously.
• Attitude adverbs express the writers attitude
  toward the state or action described in the
  sentence.
• Attitude adverbs are usually placed before the
  subject
• Fortunately, there was no need to debug the
  circuit.
• Obviously, you need to debug the circuit.

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Sentence Adverbs

• Some common sentence adverbs are certainly,
  possibly, definitely, generally, and probably.
• Sentence adverbs express the certainty or
  uncertainty of the state or action described in
  the sentence.
• Sentence adverbs are typically placed between the
  subject and the first verb of the sentence or
  after the first auxiliary verb (if one is
  present)
• Computers certainly have changed our lives.
• Computers have generally changed our lives.
• Computers have definitely changed our lives.

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Time Adverbs

• Some common time adverbs are already, always,
  ever, finally, frequently, just, and never.
• Time adverbs express how frequently the state or
  action described in the sentence takes place or
  how closely to the present time the action was
  completed.
• Time adverbs are typically placed after the first
  auxiliary verb
• Computers are usually standard equipment in
  elementary schools.
• Students are frequently familiar with computers
  when they enter the first grade.
• Occasionally, a student will not be familiar with
  computers.

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Manner Adverbs

• Some common manner adverbs are carefully,
  quietly, slowly, quickly, and well.
• Manner adverbs modify the main verb of the
  sentence.
• Manner adverbs typically follow the direct object
  of the sentence or immediately precede the main
  verb.
• The students guided the robot slowly and
  carefully through the designated turns.
• The students quickly realized that the robot
  navigated through the designated turns
  efficiently.

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Quantity Adverbs

• Some common quantity adverbs include almost,
  completely, especially, hardly, just, nearly,
  only, quite, really, relatively, extremely, and
  very.
• Quantity adverbs modify the quantity or intensity
  of an adjective, a verb, or another adverb.
• Quantity adverbs typically are placed immediately
  before the words they modify
• Electrical engineers have just begun to question
  whether or not the use of fiber optics is cost
  effective.
• Opinions are quite varied on that subject.

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Degrees of Adverbs

• Like adjectives, adverbs can appear in the
  positive, comparative, or superlative degree
• Rapidly positive
• More rapidly comparative
• Most rapidly superlative

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Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

• A comparative or superlative adverb is used to
  indicate the relative degree of some quality
  expressed by the word or phrase the adverb the
  adverb modifies.
• A comparative adverb indicates that an item has
  more or less of the quality than does another
  item.
• A superlative adverb indicates that an item has
  the quality to the greatest or least degree.

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Comparative Adverbs

• All adverbs ending in ly and certain other
  adverbs, especially long ones, form the
  comparative by the addition of the word more or
  less.
• We performed the experiment more quickly than we
  expected comparative with more.
• The robot completed the course less rapidly than
  we thought it would comparative with less.
• Some short or irregular adverbs, however, form
  the comparative by the addition of the ending
  er.
• The first robot executed the turn better than the
  second robot well changed to comparative form
  better with ending er.

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Superlative Adverbs

• All adverbs ending in ly and certain other
  adverbs, especially long ones, form the
  superlative by the addition of the word most or
  least
• The circuit is designed to work most efficiently
  with an XOR chip superlative with most.
• Some short or irregular adverbs, however, form
  the superlative by the addition of the ending
  est
• The circuit works best with a NOR chip well is
  changed to the superlative form best with the
  ending -est.

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Conjunctions

• Conjunctions connect sentences, clauses, phrases,
  or words. There are several types of
  conjunctions
• Coordinate conjunctions
• Correlative conjunctions
• Subordinate conjunctions
• Conjunctive adverbs

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Coordinate Conjunctions

• The words, phrases, or clauses being joined by a
  coordinating conjunction must be parallel in
  grammatical structure and importance.
• Appropriate coordination independent clauses
  are joined together by coordinators and
  appropriate punctuation.

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Coordinate Conjunctions (2)

• The following coordinating conjunctions are used
  after a comma to join one independent clause to
  another
• And, but, or, for, nor, so, yet
• Unacceptable
• The loudspeaker enclosure determines the lower
  cutoff frequency of the system and the crossover
  network determines how the signal is divided
  between the loudspeaker components.
• Acceptable
• The loudspeaker enclosure determines the lower
  cutoff frequency of the system, and the crossover
  network determines how the signal is divided
  between the loudspeaker components.

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Coordinate Conjunctions (3)

• Starting a sentence with a coordinating
  conjunction was once considered poor style
  however, this structure is now widely accepted.
• The gain of the amplifier is set by the feedback
  resistors. But, its bandwidth is set by both the
  feedback resistors and the gain-bandwidth product
  of the op-amp.

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Correlative Conjunctions (4)

• Common correlative conjunctions
• Bothand, eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut
  (also), whetheror
• Correlative conjunctions consist of two parts,
  both of which must be included in the sentence
• His new job in the Electrical Department is both
  interesting and lucrative.
• Neither the engineer nor the architect was
  familiar with correlative conjunctions.
• Correlative conjunctions used to join two
  independent clauses require a comma before the
  second element of the conjunction however, no
  comma is needed when the correlative conjunctions
  join a compound predicate
• Either Dr. Leach will conclude the experiment by
  March, or he will ask for additional research
  funds.
• By March, Dr. Leach will either conclude the
  experiment or ask for additional research funds.

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Subordinate Conjunctions

• Common subordinating conjunctions
• After, although, as, as though, because, before,
  if, once, since, though, unless, until, when,
  whether, and while
• Even though she explained all of her results in
  detail, she did not get full credit for her work.
• A clause that has less emphasis or is less
  important in a sentence is subordinate to or
  dependent upon the independent clause.
• The relationship between a subordinate or
  dependent clause to the main clause is shown by a
  marker word that begins the subordinate clause.

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Subordinate Conjunctions (2)

• If the subordinate conjunction and its clause
  precede the independent clause, a comma is used
  to separate the dependent clause from the
  independent clause.
• Although DSP did not flourish until the 1960s,
  it is an important research area today.
• If the subordinate conjunction and associated
  clause follow the main clause, a comma should not
  used. An exception occurs when the subordinate
  clause expresses a contrast, as do clauses
  beginning with whereas and most clauses beginning
  with although.
• The addition of a common-collector stage
  increases the gain because it decreases the
  output resistance.

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Subordinate Conjunctions (3)

• Since clauses introduced by a subordinating
  conjunction are always dependent clauses, they
  cannot stand alone they must be linked to
  independent clauses.
• Unacceptable
• Because the thermal noise voltage dominates. It
  is difficult to see the signal on the
  oscilloscope.
• Acceptable
• Because the thermal noise voltage dominates, it
  is difficult to see the signal on the
  oscilloscope.

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Conjunctive Adverbs

• Adverbs that function as conjunctions when they
  link two independent clauses separated by a
  semicolon are called conjunctive adverbs.
• Common conjunctive adverbs
• Consequently, otherwise, however, thus,
  furthermore, therefore, moreover, nevertheless

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Conjunctive Adverbs (2)

• Common positions for conjunctive adverbs are
  before the subject, between the subject and the
  first verb, and at the end of the sentence.
• However, the experiment did not work.
• The experiment, however, did not work.
• The experiment did not work, however.
• Note In each of the three examples, the
  conjunctive adverb is set apart from the rest of
  the sentence by a comma.

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Conjunctive Adverbs (3)

• Conjunctive adverbs at the beginning of a clause
  must be followed by a comma.
• The students have repeatedly obtained the same
  results from their controlled experiments.
  Therefore, the results should be reliable.
• Conjunctive adverbs joining two independent
  clauses must be preceded by a semicolon and
  followed by a comma.
• The students have repeatedly obtained the same
  results from their controlled experiments
  therefore, the results should be reliable.
• Conjunctive adverbs at the end of a clause must
  be preceded by a comma and followed by a period.
• The results should be reliable, therefore.

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Prepositions

• Prepositions show the relationship between nouns
  and other words or phrases in the sentence.
  Prepositions are followed by a noun or pronoun
  (the object of the preposition).
• Common prepositions
• About, above, across, after, against, as, at,
  behind, below, beneath, except, for, from, in,
  inside, like, near, of, off, out, over, past,
  regarding, since, through, toward, under, until,
  upon, within, and without.
• A packet is the unit of data that is routed
  between an origin and a destination on the
  internet, or on any other packet-switched network.

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Interjections

• Interjections are words that are used as
  exclamations.
• When an interjection shows mild feelings, a comma
  follows it. The word following the comma is not
  capitalized unless it is a proper noun
• Oh, that test was easy. Indeed, I did well on
  that test.
• When an interjection expresses strong feelings or
  emotions, an exclamation point follows it. The
  exclamation point is an end punctuation mark, so
  the word following it begins a new sentence and
  is always capitalized
• Wow! You made a 97 on the test. Hooray! Exams
  are over.

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