Transformation Era

1
Transformation Era

• 1870-1944

2
Transformation Era

• Role of Federal Government and Financing
• Era begins w/Morrill Act and ends with Servicemen
  Readjustment Act
• In between years for higher education funding
• Hatch Act 1887 Federal funding to conduct
  agricultural research
• Smith Lever Act 1914 created university
  extensions/experimental stations
• Smith Hughes Act 1917 Train vocational teachers
• Depression Programs
• Public Works Administration residence halls
• National Youth Administration 1935-1943 (93
  million project)
• 1930 Federal govt. spent 23 m on HE
• 1997- Fed govt. spent 7.9 billion in student
  grants work study, 33 b in loans 20 b in
  research grants
• 2003 59.7 b to HE plus 29.2 b to research
  conducted at IHE

3
Transformation Era

• Era of Considerable Growth
• Cohen starting point of the end of small
  college/small HE in the US
• Enrollment grew from 63,000 to 1.5 million
• Faculty increased from 5,500 to 150,000
• Degrees from 9,000 to 135,000 doctorates 3,300
• Endowments 50m to 1.75 b
• Expenditures 900m year to 144b
• Period of Philanthropy
• WWI 20,000 millionaires
• Technology appeals to industry
• Strings attached/ independence
• Rockefeller Foundation-dept chairs/PhD
• Beginnings of connections between business and HE
• Role of alumni
• Stakeholders/constituencies

Helping hands
4
Transformation Era

• Rise of Professional Schools
• By 1820s pressure require bachelors degree for
  admission to professional school end of era of
  apprenticeship??
• Eliot (Harvard) requires bachelors for admission
  to professional schools
• By 1900 10 law, medicine, clergy, college
  teachers had professional or graduate level
  preparation
• 1930s demand for entrance to professional school
  outstrips seats increase requirements/standards
• Pressure to up grade quality of education
• State licensure exams
• Professional associations/professional schools
• Accreditation

5

• Medical Training 1910
• If you could afford it
• Apprenticeship If you could impress a physician
  sponsor
• No undergraduate degree required
• No national standards
• U.S. in the year 1910
• Growth of Mass Public Education
• Philanthropy Wealthy Industrialists
• Separate but Equal
• Blacks limited access to white schools
• 275 Meharry, TN
• 205 Howard, DC
• 125 Leonard, NC
• 40 National, KY
• 40 U of West Tenn.
• 24 Flint, LA
• 23 Knoxville, TN

6
Flexner Report

• Abraham Flexner 1910 report Carnegie Foundation
  for the
• Flexners task Visit and rank each (115) med
  school (20 schools closed rather than have the
  visit)
• School entrance requirements
• Size and training of faculty
• Sum of available endowment and fees and budget
• Quality and adequacy of labs and qualifications
  and training of lab teachers
• The relationship between the school and its
  associated hospitals
• Results
• Recommended many schools be closed
• 52 medical schools closed by not meeting
  standards set by the report
• 5 of the 7 African American schools closed
  leaving only Meharry and Howard

7
Flexner Report

• Criticisms of report
• Flexner was part of the bureaucracy
• Worked for the Mellons and Rockefellers
• Evidence of racial bias Ch. 14 The Medical
  Education of the Negro
• A well-taught Negro sanitarian will be immensely
  useful an essentially untrained Negro wearing an
  M.D. degree is dangerous.
• AMA motives
• Accompanied visits
• Long-term implications
• Decreased number of physicians
• Improved quality and reputation of physicians
• Introduction of standards as quality measures
• Similar study w/law

8
What is Accreditation?

• Definition
• Accreditation can be viewed as a loose
  federation of institutions, associations, and
  public representatives all with an enduring
  commitment to the concept of accreditation as a
  voluntary, nongovernmental process of
  self-regulation focused on evaluating and
  improving educational quality.
• -Young, 1983

9
Effort to Achieve Standards

• Regional accreditation associations
• NEASC (1885)
• MSACS (1887)
• NCACS (1895)
• SACS (1895)
• National Associations
• NASU (1897)
• AAU (1900)

10
First list of standards (NCAS 1913)

• Student admission required completion of 14 units
  of high school credit
• Baccalaureate degrees would require 120
  collegiate credits
• Any course of studies would have to include
  credits from eight departments
• Faculty members must have obtained M.A. or Ph.D.
• Faculty could not instruct more than 15-18 credit
  hours per semester

11
ACE Requirements (1921)

• Require the completion of an accredited four-year
  secondary school program for admission
• Require at least 120 semester hours for a
  baccalaureate
• Maintain at least 100 students and 8 department
  heads
• Professors teach no more than 16 hours per week
• Average no more than 30 students in each class
• Have an annual operating income of at least
  50,000
• Maintain a library containing at least 8,000
  volumes

12
Accreditation or Governance??

• Accrediting associations had extended their
  influence by controlling
• Faculty-student ratios
• Faculty teaching loads
• Laboratory and classroom sizes
• Library holdings
• Degree and program requirements
• Staff qualifications in specific programs

13
Transformation Era

• Problems in Professional Education/Similar to
  Land Grants
• Schools of Education Development of normal
  schools, pedagogy links w/other disciplines
• Part of undergraduate curriculum (Leading
  universities develop grad programs)
• Graduate and professional education struggles to
  find place
• Role of Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement
  of Teaching
• Finding faculty
• Faculty apprenticeship/learn by doing
• Charles Eliot _at_ Harvard among 1st
• Germany PhD as a symbol of preparation
• 20th C David Starr Jordan, Stanford Worst
  teaching
• anywhere was done to freshman in colleges.
• Faculty too specialized to teach core
  courses/teaching-research conflict

14
Transformation Era

• Finding Faculty Cont.
• Scholars who teach are not unlike tutors during
  colonial times who waited for calls to the
  pulpit..teachers by accident
• Early 1900 PhD required for appointment form of
  academic snobbery. Rise of the academic man
• PhD as symbol of knowledge/competition for
  knowledge
• Concept of faculty as mentor/friend changing---Mr
  Chips replaced by PhD scholar
• increasingly dehumanized IHEs
• Academic Ranks .. .Harper Chicago 1891
• Lowest 5 levels of 1 year appointments
• Associates 2 yr appointments
• Instructors 3 yr appointments
• Assistant Professors 4 year appointments
• Permanent Appointments Assoc. Profs., Profs.,
  Head Profs.

15
Transformation Era

• Academic Organization
• Specialization of knowledge
• 1893 Dept of Biology at Chicago splits into
  zoology, botany, anatomy, neurology, physiology,
  and biology
• Ramifications resources/power/politics
• PhD as a research degree, expected to publish
  results
• Rewards tied to productivity/business model
  (sweat shop of academia)
• Begins at Johns Hopkins Chicago/quality of
  faculty determined by quality of publications
  (peer review/acceptance rates)
• Sources of research funding-external/restricted/un
  restricted
• Does research inform teaching? Are researchers
  also teachers
• (advancing knowledge or communication
  knowledge)

16

• Issue Should university researchers show
  disinterested in the products of their research,
  following it where ever it leads or should
  universities pursue applied research, take on
  project on behalf of other entities.?
• Fundamental issue Pure research leads to the
  atomic bomb (Univ of Chicago) research conducted
  at universities contributes to victory in WWII
  is that a good thing?
• Research publication becomes an industry
• University Press (Hopkins 1891)
• 1916 Univ of Chicago Press850 titles
• Sabbatical leaves (1890s)

17
Transformation Era

• Role of the President
• Early role teacher
• 1890 Ohio State ad We are looking for a man of
  fine appearance, of commanding presence, one who
  will impress the public he must be a fine
  speaker at public assemblies, he must be a great
  scholar and great teacher, he must be a preacher,
  also as some think he must be a man of winning
  manners, he must have tact so that he can along
  with and govern the faculty he must be popular
  with the students, he must also be a man of
  business training, a man of affairs, he must also
  be a great administrator.
• Clergyman president was gone or going
• Businessmen, politicians, scholars, military men
  - - leaders

18

• University of Connecticut 2007
• Candidates should possess proven leadership
  skills, an appropriate terminal degree, and a
  demonstrated ability to build and cultivate
  financial support for the University and its
  programs. The successful candidate will have the
  ability to provide responsible financial
  stewardship of the University, as well as the
  facility to effectively focus administrative
  functions on serving the Universitys educational
  mission demonstrated capability to effectively
  guide the operations of large, complex public
  organization the capacity to build consensus on
  and articulate a clear vision of the University
  mission among its constituencies demonstrated
  ability to create a climate of community,
  understanding, integrity, and mutual respect
  demonstrated support for the principles of shared
  governance and academic freedom the talent to
  establish and maintain constructive,
  collaborative relationships with faculty,
  students, trustees, alumni, unions, community,
  and legislative constituencies, and to foster
  diversity reflective of our global environment.

19

• Harper at Chicago
• Began a meeting by saying he had 40 points to
  discuss.
• In the last 18 months of his life he published 5
  books (1906)
• President as
• Academic leader
• Fund raiser
• Interface w/ federal govt
• Internal-external constituencies/publics
  politics
• Athletics
• Complex organizations