Leisure Needs

1
Leisure Needs

• 1908 McDougall proposed that people are born with
  an instinct to play that motivates their
  behavior.
• Expressed Leisure Needs
• Usually identified through a list of leisure
  needs from which a respondent rates the
  importance of that need

2
Levels of causality in Leisure Behavior
Expressed Leisure Needs
Social Environment
Situational Influences
Perceived Freedom And competence
Need for optimal Arousal and incongruity
Situational Influences
Social Environment
Biological Dispositions and Early socialization
experiences
3
So, what do we really know about motivations?

• Recreation Experience Preference Scale (REP)
• Paragraphs about Leisure (PAL)
• On, and on, and on!!!
• Iso-Ahola
• Two basic motivational dimensions
• Seeking and escaping

4
Seeking/Escaping

• Based on Iso-Aholas model
• Personal satisfactions are mainly comprised of
• Self-determination, sense of competence,
  challenge, learning, exploration and relaxation
• Both seeking and escaping motives are forms of
  intrinsic motivation

5
Seeking/escaping dimensions of leisure motivation
Seeking Personal Rewards
Seeking Interpersonal Rewards
Escaping Interpersonal Environments
Escaping Personal Environments
6

• Attraction
• Seeking and Coping with risk

Positive Affect Self-Expression Centrality to
Lifestyle
Psychological Antecedents Need for
stimulation Need for Autonym Social Environment
Declarative and Procedural Knowledge
(2) Cognitive Appraisal Of situational Risk
(5) Intuitive-Reflective Appraisal
Objective/Subjective Risk Perceived
Risk Previewed Competence Anticipation of Outcome
Intense Task Involvement Cognitive and Affective
Arousal
(4) Performance Experience
(3) Decision making Approach/withdrawal
Task Selection Risk Engagement
7
Satisfaction

• I cant get no ,
• satisfaction
• Appraisal and Evaluation
• Quality of Life
• Morale,
• Happiness
• Satisfaction
• With what?

8
Satisfaction

• Happiness
• Reflects a persons more temporary affective
  feeling of the present moment
• Morale
• More future-oriented optimism or pessimism with
  peoples lives
• Satisfaction
• an act of judgment, a comparison of what people
  have to what they think they deserve, expect, or
  may reasonably aspire to.

9
Satisfaction

• A lot of satisfaction research focuses on the
  specific event (recreation) and is not
  necessarily tied to a leisure construct (theory)
• Consumer literature
• Service Quality (ServQual)
• Assesses how well an agency does what it says it
  does.

10
Chapter 8

• Pop Quiz
• 1. Think about a recreation activity that you do
  or have done
• 2. When, where and with whom did you start the
  activity
• 3. Who was the most influential person on your
  leisure behavior
• 4. Why did your family participate in the
  leisure behavior(s) that they did?

11
Play

• Play
• Intrinsically motivated behavior
• Freely chosen
• So why do we play?
• Practice?
• For later life

12
Play

• Stages people go through
• Autoshpere (birth to 2 years)
• The world of play that includes the body and what
  is immediately around it.
• Microsphere (2 to 4)
• Near environment
• the world of manageable toys
• During these two periods play is largely solitary

13
Play

• Macrosphere (4 to 7)
• Wider world of others (going beyond the self)
• Parallel play
• Associative play
• Symbolic practice play
• 7-12
• Cooperative play

14
Self-Socialization

• Seeking to become a greater part of the world
  around them.
• Children are producers of their own development
• How can this be facilitated (helped)
• 1. leisure opportunities
• Cognitive development,
• 2. Enjoyable activities and personally
  expressive activities
• 3. Social interaction

15
Changing patterns through Childhood

• Erikson defined life stages for children
• Trust vs. mistrust (earliest stage)
• Will this person come back and give me food?
• Will this person leave me in the dark?
• Autonomy (1 to 3)
• Being able to say no
• Initiative (3-4)
• Industry (above 4)
• Children begin to produce
• Age in instruction

16
Leisure Orientations

• Socialization into and through leisure
• Socialization into leisure
• the process, by which children acquire motives,
  attitudes, values, and skills that affect their
  leisure choices, behavior and experiences
  throughout their lives
• Socialization through leisure
• Preparing children for their future social roles
  and responsibilities

17
Leisure Influences

• Agents of influence
• Those entities that influence ones leisure
  behavior.
• Professionalized into sports?
• What do children value in sports?
• Younger
• Fairness Equality
• Older
• Winning

18
Leisure Influences

• Family (parenting styles)
• Authoritarian
• Its my way or the highway
• Laissez faire
• Whatever!
• Democratic/authoritative
• The Harried Leisure Class
• Linder

19
Leisure Influences

• Children achieving flow (optimal experiences)
• Feeling of choice and control
• Clarity of rules and structures
• Recognition of the value of centering or focusing
  attention
• Encouragement of commitment to task
• Creation of meaningful challenges.

20
Leisure Influences

• How does culture influence the games that are
  played?
• Structured and obedient
• Games of strategy
• Unpredictable
• Games of chance
• Conflict-enculturation hypothesis
• Games and activities both prepare children for
  their life in their culture and enable them to
  adjust and cope with conflict and stress
  resulting from child-rearing practices that
  essentially attempt to control and shape their
  lives.

21
Leisure Influences

• Autotelic family context
• A context where children learn to engage in
  activity for its own sake
• Peer influences on leisure
• Relatedness is important for children
• They want to belong to a social group
• Play training?
• Emphasizing the importance of play through
  activities aimed at showing the benefits of play
• Often for disadvantaged youth

22
Leisure Influences

• Over programming children
• When we structure children's lives with so much
  stuff that they cannot be kids.
• Premature structuring
• Making children performers before they are ready

23
Media influences

• Positive vs. negative effects
• Glamorization of high adventure sports
• Gotta have mentality
• Do the Dew
• If you have this, you will be it!

24
From childhood to adulthood

• Less than 50 of adult leisure activities are
  begun in childhood
• We develop a sense of self (identity) that may be
  different from our parents
• Individuation
• Process of adolescents defining themselves as
  unique and different from others
• However, children linked leisure with social
  interaction rather than being alone

25
From childhood to adulthood

• Intensity of experience
• Being at a loud party, loud music
• Extremes with others confers a sense of belonging
• Deviation amplifying
• You are the gas and I am the matches
• Friends influence each other into doing things
  they normally wouldnt

26
From childhood to adulthood

• About 80 of people who enjoy outdoor activities
  in childhood actively enjoy outdoor activities in
  adulthood.
• Leisure Careers
• Enduring leisure pattern that develop into
  lifelong interests and commitments

27
Leisure over the lifespan

• You cant teach an old dog new tricks
• Do we continue to develop after adolescence?
• Influences on development?
• Normative age-graded influences
• Normative history-graded influences
• Nonnormative life events

28
Leisure over the lifespan

• Normative age-graded influences
• Ontogenetic changes
• Specific to ages (stage theories)
• Predictable life events
• High school
• Proms etc.
• Retirement
• Normative history-graded influences
• Significant historical events
• Generation X
• Flower children (60s)

29
Leisure over the lifespan

• Nonnormative life events
• Divorce
• Change in job
• Disability

30
Changes in Leisure Participation

• Does age affect leisure participation?
• How so?
• Are older folks likely to go skydiving?
• Are young folks likely to go square dancing?

31
Leisure Repertoire (Iso-Ahola)
Leisure Repertoire
Death
Birth
Number of leisure activities available to Or
participated in by the individual
Childhood
Retirement
Early Adulthood
Late Adulthood
32
How do we study Leisure over the lifespan?

• Studying people
• Cross Sectional studies
• Studies that asses types and rates of
  participation across different segments of
  society,
• Can be segmented (sectioned) by
• Age, rage, social class, geographic location
  (etc)

33
How do we study Leisure over the lifespan?

• Longitudinal studies
• Studies that asses types and rates of
  participation among the same group of people
• Cohorts
• People that are grouped together based on some
  criteria
• Age is a common cohort
• Education levels

34
Play

• Play
• Intrinsically motivated behavior
• Freely chosen
• So why do we play?
• Practice?
• For later life

35
Play

• Stages people go through
• Autoshpere (birth to 2 years)
• The world of play that includes the body and what
  is immediately around it.
• Microsphere (2 to 4)
• Near environment
• the world of manageable toys
• During these two periods play is largely solitary

36
Play

• Macrosphere (4 to 7)
• Wider world of others (going beyond the self)
• Parallel play
• Associative play
• Symbolic practice play
• 7-12
• Cooperative play

37
Self-Socialization

• Seeking to become a greater part of the world
  around them.
• Children are producers of their own development
• How can this be facilitated (helped)
• 1. leisure opportunities
• Cognitive development,
• 2. Enjoyable activities and personally
  expressive activities
• 3. Social interaction

38
Changing patterns through Childhood

• Erikson defined life stages for children
• Trust vs. mistrust (earliest stage)
• Will this person come back and give me food?
• Will this person leave me in the dark?
• Autonomy (1 to 3)
• Being able to say no
• Initiative (3-4)
• Industry (above 4)
• Children begin to produce
• Age in instruction

39
Leisure Orientations

• Socialization into and through leisure
• Socialization into leisure
• the process, by which children acquire motives,
  attitudes, values, and skills that affect their
  leisure choices, behavior and experiences
  throughout their lives
• Socialization through leisure
• Preparing children for their future social roles
  and responsibilities

40
Leisure Influences

• Agents of influence
• Those entities that influence ones leisure
  behavior.
• Professionalized into sports?
• What do children value in sports?
• Younger
• Fairness Equality
• Older
• Winning

41
Leisure Influences

• Family (parenting styles)
• Authoritarian
• Its my way or the highway
• Laissez faire
• Whatever!
• Democratic/authoritative
• The Harried Leisure Class
• Linder

42
Leisure Influences

• Children achieving flow (optimal experiences)
• Feeling of choice and control
• Clarity of rules and structures
• Recognition of the value of centering or focusing
  attention
• Encouragement of commitment to task
• Creation of meaningful challenges.

43
Leisure Influences

• How does culture influence the games that are
  played?
• Structured and obedient
• Games of strategy
• Unpredictable
• Games of chance
• Conflict-enculturation hypothesis
• Games and activities both prepare children for
  their life in their culture and enable them to
  adjust and cope with conflict and stress
  resulting from child-rearing practices that
  essentially attempt to control and shape their
  lives.

44
Leisure Influences

• Autotelic family context
• A context where children learn to engage in
  activity for its own sake
• Peer influences on leisure
• Relatedness is important for children
• They want to belong to a social group
• Play training?
• Emphasizing the importance of play through
  activities aimed at showing the benefits of play
• Often for disadvantaged youth

45
Leisure Influences

• Over programming children
• When we structure children's lives with so much
  stuff that they cannot be kids.
• Premature structuring
• Making children performers before they are ready

46
Media influences

• Positive vs. negative effects
• Glamorization of high adventure sports
• Gotta have mentality
• Do the Dew
• If you have this, you will be it!

47
From childhood to adulthood

• Less than 50 of adult leisure activities are
  begun in childhood
• We develop a sense of self (identity) that may be
  different from our parents
• Individuation
• Process of adolescents defining themselves as
  unique and different from others
• However, children linked leisure with social
  interaction rather than being alone

48
From childhood to adulthood

• Intensity of experience
• Being at a loud party, loud music
• Extremes with others confers a sense of belonging
• Deviation amplifying
• You are the gas and I am the matches
• Friends influence each other into doing things
  they normally wouldnt

49
From childhood to adulthood

• About 80 of people who enjoy outdoor activities
  in childhood actively enjoy outdoor activities in
  adulthood.
• Leisure Careers
• Enduring leisure pattern that develop into
  lifelong interests and commitments

50
Leisure over the lifespan

• You cant teach an old dog new tricks
• Do we continue to develop after adolescence?
• Influences on development?
• Normative age-graded influences
• Normative history-graded influences
• Nonnormative life events

51
Leisure over the lifespan

• Normative age-graded influences
• Ontogenetic changes
• Specific to ages (stage theories)
• Predictable life events
• High school
• Proms etc.
• Retirement
• Normative history-graded influences
• Significant historical events
• Generation X
• Flower children (60s)

52
Leisure over the lifespan

• Nonnormative life events
• Divorce
• Change in job
• Disability

53
Changes in Leisure Participation

• Does age affect leisure participation?
• How so?
• Are older folks likely to go skydiving?
• Are young folks likely to go square dancing?

54
Leisure Repertoire (Iso-Ahola)
Leisure Repertoire
Death
Birth
Number of leisure activities available to Or
participated in by the individual
Childhood
Retirement
Early Adulthood
Late Adulthood
55
How do we study Leisure over the lifespan?

• Studying people
• Cross Sectional studies
• Studies that asses types and rates of
  participation across different segments of
  society,
• Can be segmented (sectioned) by
• Age, rage, social class, geographic location
  (etc)

56
How do we study Leisure over the lifespan?

• Longitudinal studies
• Studies that asses types and rates of
  participation among the same group of people
• Cohorts
• People that are grouped together based on some
  criteria
• Age is a common cohort
• Education levels

57
Different types of leisure behavior

• Replacers (20)
• Quit doing one activity that they had been doing
  for a while and replace it with another one
• Quitters (25)
• Quit doing one activity and did not replace it
  with another
• Adders (16)
• Did not quit an activity but began a new one
• Continuers (40)
• Neither quit nor added activities

58
Stages of Development

• Life Span vs. Life course models
• Life span models
• Distinguish between stages based on psychological
  issues or challenges faced by individuals
• Life course models
• Emphasize role-related changes that occur in
  contemporary society

59
Stages of Development
Retirement
Culmination of middle adulthood
60
Late Adult Transition
40
Settling Down
Mid-life Transition
Entering the Adult World
Early Adult Transition
20
0
60
Leisure and Aging

• Activity Theory
• People will be most happy and fulfilled in direct
  proportion to how much activity they are able to
  maintain
• Disengagement Theory
• As the end of life draws near, people will
  voluntarily disengage fro mothers and from their
  former patterns, and societies withdrawal from
  them will leave them in peace and happiness
• Continuity Theory
• Most successful aging is consistent with
  recognition of the need to establish ego
  integrity (people need to belong and have things
  to do that they feel are important)

61
Chapter 10Psychological Benefits of Leisure

• Benefit
• a change that is viewed to be advantageousan
  improvement in condition, or a gain to an
  individual, a group, to society, or to another
  entity
• For it to be a leisure benefit two things must
  occur
• 1. involvement in some form of leisure is
  responsible for change
• 2. change must be an improvement over a previous
  state.

62
Negative impacts of Leisure?

• Alcohol, Drug use
• Alcoholism, drug dependency
• Pre coital/coital behavior
• Teen pregnancy
• Depreciative behavior (tagging)
• Is all leisure necessarily beneficial?

63
Leisure Benefits

• When studying leisure benefits, leisure is
  treated as a major input.
• Can look at
• Setting
• Activity
• Experience

64
Leisure Benefit Outcomes

• When talking about benefits, you have to address
  the outcome

Inputs
Leisure
Production Process
Outcomes
Valuation Process
Value or worth
Benefits And costs
65
Outcomes

• Psychological benefits
• Self actualization
• Stress relief
• Economic benefits
• Environmental outcomes

66
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Keeping Idle Hands Busy
• People are most happy when they are busy
• Protestant Work Ethic
• Idleness was considered and enemy of the soul
• Boredom has been studied extensively in leisure
  research
• What about keeping the idle mind busy?
• Recharge my batteries
• get my head screwed on straight
• How do most people do this?
• Leisure

67
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Psychological Hedonism Pleasure-relaxation-fun
  theories
• Hedonism
• Psychological theory that states that people will
  seek pleasure and avoid pain.
• Pleasure-relaxation-fun
• People seek fun and although these experiences
  are relatively brief, they have a cumulative
  affect

68
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Need-Compensation Theory
• Leisure provides us a benefit we are not
  getting in other aspects of life (particularly
  work)

69
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Personal Growth Theories
• Self-esteem
• Self-actualization (Maslow stuff)
• Growing belief that leisure must be more than
  pleasurable, diversionary, or escape oriented?
• Meaning it must be more than just an escape or
  fun!
• Idea of commitment, serious leisure, and flow
• Belief that those who have higher life
  satisfaction are more involved in leisure
  behavior
• Also known as high investment activities

70
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Personal Growth Theories
• In other words
• the more a person invests in the activities in
  which they choose to participate, the more they
  get out of the activity
• Leisure satisfaction vs. job satisfaction

71
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Identity Formation and Affirmation Theory
• People identify themselves by their leisure
  activities
• Leisure can provide an opportunity to experiment

72
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Identity Formation and Affirmation Theory
• Leisure Identities
• Express and affirm individual talents and
  capabilities
• Provide some degree of social recognition
• Affirm central values and interests
• Some examples of leisure identities?
• What about posers?

73
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Buffer and Coping Theory

Negative Life Events
Increased Life Stress
Leisure
Social Support
Buffer
Self-Determination
Maintained Worse Physical and Mental
Health
74
Psychological Benefit Theories

• Activity Substitution Theory of Aging
• As we get older, keeping active will help people
  adjust successfully to aging
• This can be done by substituting for activities
  that one cannot or is unable to do
• This active lifestyle adds to well being
  (psychologically and physically)
• Ullyssean adult

75
Psychological Benefit Theories

• So what does it all mean?
• Research suggests that there are some benefits
  from leisure and sport participation (no
  kidding!)
• The theories tend to overlap

76
CHAPTER 11

• The Benefits of Leisure in Other Domains of Life

77
Leisure as a Life Force

• Can the activities that people do for leisure
  help them enjoy their lives and deal with the
  challenges that they face in other areas of life?
• What do you think?

78
Leisure vs. Non-Leisure

• Leisure is treated as the Dependent Variable
• Because it is the area of life that is least
  constrained and more susceptible to other demands
  of life. (School, Work, Relationships, etc.)

79
The Good, The Bad, and..

• Positive Effects of Leisure on Work and Family
• Involvement in leisure can be a form of
  resistance against role constraints, thus leading
  to other changes in life. (think gender
  stereotypes)

80
.The Ugly.

• Negative Effects
• Leisure involvement can constrain men and womens
  behavior in a variety of domains if they
  reinforce traditional views of masculine and
  femininity.

81
Leisure and Life Satisfaction

• Life satisfaction is a popular measure of the
  quality of life.
• Life satisfaction scales measure enduring and
  stable beliefs and cognitions.
• Also looks at Global vs. Local Satisfaction and
  everything in between.

82

• Small but significant relationships have been
  found between frequent leisure participation and
  life satisfaction
• What do you think?

83
What Supports That?

• Successful Aging Life Satisfaction
• Leisure activity levels may be better predictors
  of life satisfaction than health and income.
• Measures of leisure satisfaction are better
  predictors of life satisfaction than actual
  participation.
• The higher the leisure satisfaction higher life
  satisfaction.
• This link has been found to vary based on age,
  gender, ethnicity, occupation, and social status.

84
The Case of Job Satisfaction

• Assumption that the job indicates activity
  selection, participation, and contacts.

85
Spillover and Compensation

• Suggest that the nature of peoples work directly
  influences their choice of leisure activities.
• Spillover Workers are thought to participate in
  leisure activities that have characteristics
  similar to their job related activities and
  tasks.

86
Spillover Compensation Continued

• Compensation Deprivations experienced at work
  are made up for during leisure - people will
  satisfy needs that they cannot satisfy at work.
• There has been more support for spillover than
  compensation. Which do you agree with?

87
Leisure Promoting Job Satisfaction

• The early classical theories of recreation and
  relaxation suggested that leisure is an important
  element in determining work satisfaction.
• Because of this many companies started to promote
  recreational programs for employees.

88
Leisure Buffing and Coping Hypothesis

• When work settling rules and expectations impede
  the satisfaction of important needs, leisure can
  provide opportunities for people to more readily
  meet those needs and affirm who they are. (Kelly
  and Shamir)
• A.K.A to compensate for psychological needs not
  met by work, achieve better life balance, and
  feel better about their work.

89
Vacations. Do they promote job satisfaction or
not?

• When workers find their vacations as highly
  satisfying then the majority find greater job
  satisfaction when they return.
• On the other hand job satisfaction decreased when
  workers had a less than satisfying vacations.

90
A Further Look at Vacations
Time Measured
91
Job Loss

• Through Retirement and Unemployment
• Leisure participation often changes as a result
  of these life events
• The right type of leisure may help people
  maintain their well being and cope or grow with
  these transitions.

92
Job Loss

• Problems that arise
• Loss of income
• Social isolation (friends and coworkers)
• Psychological losses (not contributing to
  society)
• Research suggest that the retirement transition
  is less traumatic and more satisfying among
  people with higher perceived levels of health and
  economic status who have harmonious marriages
  and social support from their spouses and
  families.

93
Job Loss

• Warr(1983) Identified nine potentially negative
  features of unemployment
• Financial anxiety
• Less variety in life due to reduced income and
  more time spent at home
• Fewer goals or aims in life
• Reduced opportunity for making important
  decisions
• Reduced opportunities to exercise skills or
  expertise
• Increase in psychologically threatening
  activities such as unsuccessful job searches
• Insecurity about the future
• Fewer social contacts
• Reduced social status

94
Job Loss

• Kilpatrick and Trew(1985) identified four groups
  on how unemployed people spent their free time
• Passive group Spent most of their time watching
  TV or doing nothing.
• Domestic group Spent most of their time at
  home, but unlike the first, assisted with
  household tasks.
• Social group Spent much of their time with
  people outside their immediate family
• Active group not only spent more time on
  work-related activities, but also engaged more
  frequently in active leisure pursuits outside the
  home.

95
Family, Friends, and Significant Others.

• The central social space for the development and
  expression of primary relationships Kelly 1993
• Some types of leisure are generally assumed to
  have positive outcomes for families. However,
  family leisure may lead to conflict and some
  family members may feel obligated to participate.

96
Family, Friends, and Significant Others

• The benefits for family leisure can be divided
  into three major types
• Family stability
• Family interaction
• Family satisfaction
• (Orthner and Mancini 1991)

97
Family, Friends, and Significant Others

• Family Stability
• The Family that plays together stays together
• It implies a continuity of interpersonal
  relationships in the family.
• Family Interaction
• Refers to communication, conflict, and the
  distribution of household tasks and roles among
  family members.
• Although it is mostly seen to enhance these
  features, family leisure can create conflict and
  destroy communication

98
Family, Friends, and Significant Others

• Family Satisfaction
• A consistent finding is that husbands and wives
  who share leisure time together in joint
  activities tend to be much more satisfied with
  their marriages than those who do not.
• There tends to be a negative impact on marital
  satisfaction of frequent independent, individual
  activities by family members.